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HISTORY HISTORY FOR A JOURNEY IN BEING™ 2022
OUTLINE 1.2 PURPOSES: HISTORY AS THE ‘STORY’ OF THOUGHT AND ACTION 1.4 WHITEHEAD’S CONCEPT OF HISTORY
TABLE OF CONTENTS1.2 PURPOSES: HISTORY AS THE ‘STORY’ OF THOUGHT AND ACTION 1.4 WHITEHEAD’S CONCEPT OF HISTORY 1.4.2 History as interplay between ‘force’ and ‘inspiration’ 1.4.4 Sociological function, change and ideas 1.4.5 Modern cosmology [metaphysics, world view] and how individuals experience their world 2.1.1.2 Geological Evolution of Earth: Geochronology 2.1.1.3 Evolution of Life on Earth: Biochronology 2.1.2.3 The New Levant: Syria and Palestine 2.1.3.1.3 Rise of Jainism and Buddhism 2.1.3.3 The Chinese Empire: The Formative Period 2.1.4 Classical Antiquity: Jews and Greeks 2.1.4.2 The Great Divide [omitted] 2.1.4.3 The Century of Minor Powers [omitted] 2.1.4.5 The Fourth Century to the Death of Alexander 2.1.5 Classical Antiquity: Rome 2.1.5.4 The Later Roman Empire 2.1.5.5 Late Roman society and culture [interaction of power, knowledge and faith] 2.2.1.1 The Arabs and the Rise of Islam 2.2.1.2 The Disruption and Decline of the Arab Empire 2.2.1.4 Jews in the Arab World 2.2.2.2 The Chinese Empire: The Great Era 2.2.2.3 The Chinese Empire: Foreign Powers 2.2.3.1.1 Roman and Byzantine Emperors 2.2.3.1.2 Frankish Kings and Western Emperors [Since 800] 2.2.3.1.3 German Kings and Emperors 2.2.3.1.6 Ecclesiastical Intellectuals 2.2.3.2.3 English and French Princes 2.2.3.2.4 Orders of the Church 2.2.3.2.5 Churchmen and Intellectuals 2.2.3.3.1 Princes and Dynasties 2.2.3.3.2 Soldiers, Magistrates, Artists, and Businessmen 2.2.3.4 The Jews in Medieval Europe 2.2.4.3 The Slavs and Early Russia 2.3.1 The Renaissance and Reformation in Europe 2.3.1.1 The State System of the Italian Renaissance 2.3.1.4 The Reformation: Doctrine 2.3.1.5 The Reformation: Society 2.3.1.6 The Counter Reformation 2.3.2 Building the Early Modern State 2.3.2.1 The Golden Age of Spain 2.3.2.2 The Rise of the Dutch Republic 2.3.2.3 The Collapse of France 2.3.2.4 Elizabethans and Puritans 2.3.2.6 The Rise of Modern Political Thought 2.3.3.3 European Voyages of Exploration 2.3.3.6 Aztec and Inca Civilizations 2.3.3.7 Spain and Portugal in America 2.3.3.8 The Settlement of North America 2.3.4.1 The Scientific Revolution 2.3.4.3 Science versus Theology 2.4.1 Europe: The Great Powers 2.4.1.3 Europe in the 18th Century 2.4.2 Revolution in the Western World 2.4.2.1 The American Revolution 2.4.3.2 The United States: 1789-1823 2.4.3.3 Liberation Movements in Europe 2.4.3.4 Liberation Movements in Latin America 2.4.4 The Industrial Revolution 2.4.4.1 The Industrial Revolution in England 2.4.4.2 The Spread of Industrialization 2.4.5.2 From Liberalism to Democracy 2.4.5.4 The Antislavery Impulse in America 2.5.1.3 China Under the Impact of the West 2.5.1.4 India Under British Rule 2.5.1.6 The Great Powers to the Verge of War 2.5.2 The Great War: 1914–1945 2.5.2.2 The Russian Revolution and the Stalin Era 2.5.2.3 The United States: Prosperity and Depression 2.5.2.7 Europe Between the Wars 2.5.3.1 Europe Since World War II 2.5.3.3 Latin America in Ferment 2.5.3.4 The Middle East Since 1940 2.5.3.7 The United States Since Word War II 2.5.3.8 The State of Culture Today
1 HISTORY: INTRODUCTION1.1 REFERENCEThe outline below is compiled and taken from John A. Garraty and Peter Gay, eds., The Columbia History of the World, 1972; and thus there is no present claim to originality in content or organization In purpose, however, there is no explicit dependence on the above or other work; naturally, of course, I absorb and process existing thought, such as may have come to my attention 1.2 PURPOSES: HISTORY AS THE ‘STORY’ OF THOUGHT AND ACTIONTo give a sense of the processes and forces involved with sufficient focus on: Showing the interplay of ideas and action Areas of consideration: religion, myth, art and literature; philosophy, humanities, and the study of history; technology, science, and mathematics; economic, exploration, commercial and trade; law, military and political; education, meaning, journey, and commitment The general and the singular and their interplay in history and power The general: populations that may be thought of as homogeneous for the purposes of the account, their processes and their interactions; patriarchalism The singular: individuals and singular events or small focal groups of the same – especially those that are at focal points of history; charisma Showing the dynamics without having to resort to explicit theory or concept; events and interactions will be selected to show the dynamics and trends as a picture… without requiring or denying any inference of pattern or predictability especially a principle of pattern or predictability that can be generalized to application to all history An outline for History, a possible future work mentioned above A framework for Journey in Being… especially the studies toward Journey in Being – see Design for a Journey in Being… for: Philosophy Knowledge; the academic disciplines Influence – History, the present document, as a History of Influence Being and its variety; Being and its Journey in Transformation 1.3 PERIODSThere was originally a section that characterized periods of history according to ‘sentiment’ e.g. the time from prehistory till 700 BC may have been labeled ‘myth,’ 700 BC to 300 AD ‘philosophy,’ 300 AD to 1500 AD ‘chaos,’ and 1500 AD till the present ‘exploration and science’ The intention was to use a suggestive character as a label. However, the labels are caricatures and the old system is abandoned 1.4 WHITEHEAD’S CONCEPT OF HISTORYThe source for this section is A. N. Whitehead, Adventures of Ideas, 1933 1.4.1 Relativity and focusWhitehead emphasizes the commonplace acknowledgement of interpretation as relative and theoretical He notes that Adventures of Ideas focuses on European History and its sources in Greek and Hebrew culture and civilization; the book is, in part, an attempt to identify the theoretical background of meaning and interpretation for the European tradition 1.4.2 History as interplay between ‘force’ and ‘inspiration’[A special case of variation and selection] Force is ‘blind’; inspiration includes ideas and criticism; no novelty is ever entirely novel: even within ‘force’ there is a constructive element The history of civilization is the history (adventure) of ideas Examples of force and ideas in European History: barbarians and Christianity; industrial revolution and democracy Whitehead would put ‘barbarians’ in quotes for this designation is from the European perspective; objectively, for Europe, ‘barbarians’ functioned as ‘force’ Whitehead, notes this as an example of relativity of perspective in that the culture and ideas of the barbarians –e.g. the Goths and other invading peoples– were advanced and refreshing 1.4.3 Kinds of influenceSociety, function, change in interaction with ideas Modern cosmology or ‘world view’ influences how individuals experience their world 1.4.4 Sociological function, change and ideasThe human soul and the humanitarian ideal Aspects of freedom; from force to persuasion Foresight [and understanding which results in foresight] in social function 1.4.5 Modern cosmology [metaphysics, world view] and how individuals experience their worldCosmology. Nature and the laws of nature; four types of cosmology: cosmology is expressed in laws or understanding of the patterns of nature regarding whose character there are four classic kinds of interpretation; these are the schools of immanence, of imposition, of mere description [positivism,] and of conventional interpretation; cosmology, science and faith Philosophy. Objectivity and subjectivity; Cartesianism; time, coherences; appearance and reality; and philosophic method Civilization. Truth, beauty, adventure, and peace
2 HISTORY: A BRIEF OUTLINE2.1 THE ANCIENT WORLD2.1.1 Before History2.1.1.1 The UniverseHere, I omit details; the history of the universe may later be covered in Physics, below and subsequently The idea of an initial singularity [big bang] may explain features of the known or visible universe; this does not imply that the history of the entire universe known and unknown is described by such a singularity. The domain of the unknown is, almost without doubt, much larger if not infinitely larger than that of the known. From physical cosmology it is understood that the known universe, almost homogeneous on a large scale, is, perhaps, a mere bubble in a much larger arena From the sections on nothingness and general cosmology in Journey in Being, a foundation of the vast spatio-temporal extent and variety of larger arena, the one universe, may be seen in indeterminism and the void. From the non-spatiotemporal, acausal void arises space-time-actuality and causation and law; and law includes physics but is not restricted to the physics of the known universe and may be much more varied 2.1.1.2 Geological Evolution of Earth: Geochronology2.1.1.3 Evolution of Life on Earth: Biochronology
Table 1 Bio-Geochronology of Earth. Compiled from The Columbia History of the World, 1972 2.1.1.4 Human EvolutionFurther details are in the table above BC 4M Earliest known hominids 1.75 Stone tools 0.6 Pithecanthropus evolves 0.2 Possible Homo sapiens; use of fire 95K Homo sapiens; burial of the dead 40K Modern Homo sapiens; Upper Paleolithic culture 30K Art 10K Holocene epoch: end of last ice-age 9K Beginnings of animal husbandry – domesticated sheep in the Tigris Valley, agriculture 2.1.2 The Ancient Near East2.1.2.1 MesopotamiaBC 10,000 Wooden reaping knives set with flint blades used in Palestine 9000 End of the Ice Age; domesticated sheep in the North Tigris valley 7700 Çatal Huyuk, Turkey; obsidian mined for tools; fertility cult 7000 Pottery 6500 Copper 3300 Writing, wheel, sailboats, animal plows in Sumer 3100 Hieroglyphic writing in Egypt 2350 Sargon I of Agade, first known empire 2100 Supremacy of Ur in Lower Mesopotamia; laws of Ur-Nammu of Ur, first known law book 1800 Assyrian temple for the Sumerian god, Enlil 2.1.2.2 EgyptBC 1550-1200 Wheeled vehicles common, bronze, bellows and other labor saving tools 1375-1358 Amarna age; Ikhnaton’s religious reforms 2.1.2.3 The New Levant: Syria and PalestineBC 2000-500 Establishment of desert religions 1550 Hyskos I expelled from Egypt; new model Egyptian army using chariots and composite bows 1525 Thutmose I claims Syria to the Euphrates 1500 Invention of alphabetic writing in Syria 1200 Iron use common 1100 Camel use common in North Arabia; lime plaster used to make watertight cisterns opens up dry areas for settlement 2.1.3 Asian Civilization2.1.3.1 Early India2.1.3.1.1 Prehistoric IndiaBC 3000-1500 Indus Valley Civilization 1500-1200 Aryan invasion; earliest hymns of the Rg-Veda 2.1.3.1.2 Vedic EraBC 1200-900 Composition of Rg-Veda 900-500 Later Vedas, Brahmanas, Early Upanishads 2.1.3.1.3 Rise of Jainism and BuddhismBC c. 550 Birth of Mahavira and Gautama 185-100 Laws of Manu 2.1.3.2 Early ChinaBC 1523-1027 Shang dynasty [according to Bamboo Annals] 1027-771 Western Chou dynasty 770-256 Eastern Chou dynasty 551-479 Traditional dates of Confucius c. 500 Beginning of Iron Age in China 403-221 Age of Warring States 223 Ch’in annihilates Ch’u 221-207 Ch’in dynasty 2.1.3.3 The Chinese Empire: The Formative PeriodBC 214 First expansion of Chinese empire 213 Burning of the Books 210 Death of First Emperor 206 Destruction of Imperial Library 206-AD 9 Former Han dynasty BC 191 Book Burning edict rescinded 141 Legalists excluded from government careers 124 Imperial Academy established 127-101 Second expansion of Chinese empire 87 Regency established 51 Peace between China and Hsiung-nu AD 9-23 Interregnum of Wang Mang 25-220 Later Han dynasty 49 Peace between China and Southern Hsiung-nu 65 First Chinese reference to Buddhism 89 Regency reintroduced 184 Uprising of Yellow Turbans 220-265 China divided 265-316 Western Chin dynasty 316 Loss of northern China 317-589 China divided 2.1.4 Classical Antiquity: Jews and Greeks2.1.4.1 JewsBC 1250 Israelites invade Palestine 900 King Asa of Jordan bans worship of gods other than Yahweh 2.1.4.2 The Great Divide [omitted]Some elements incorporated below 2.1.4.3 The Century of Minor Powers [omitted]2.1.4.4 Persia and AthensBC 780 Alphabet 776 Olympic Games 770 First Greek colony, Cumae, on Italian mainland 750-700 Iliad and Odyssey reach their present forms 585 Thales of Miletus, beginnings of natural philosophy 560 Pisistratus becomes tyrant of Athens 510 Pisistratus family expelled from Athens 540 Xenophanes, philosophic monism; “Second Isaiah,” nationalistic monotheism 525 Pythagoras, the philosophic life 499 Ionian cities, aided by Athens, revolt from Persia 490 Battle of Marathon 478 Athens creates the Delian League for liberation of Greece from Persia 475 Parmenides: opposition of reality [changeless] to appearance [changing] 458 Aeschylus’ Oresteia 447 Beginning of Parthenon 447 Sophist study of argument, rhetoric; Pindar [lyric poetry,] Sophocles [tragedy,] Herodotus [history,] Phidias [sculpture 431-74 Socrates [moral philosophy,] Hippocrates [rational medicine,] Democritus [atomism,] Aristophanes [comedy,] Euripides [tragedy,] Thucydides [history] 431-404 Peloponnesian war: defeat of Athenian fleet 2.1.4.5 The Fourth Century to the Death of AlexanderBC 404-37 Spartan hegemony in Greece 399 Trial and execution of Socrates 371-362 Plato teaching in Athens 359 Philip II: King of Macedonia, consequences of specialization in war 338 Aristotle, Diogenes, Demosthenes 336-323 Ascent to death, at age 32, of Alexander: conquest from the Macedonian Empire to Indus Valley 2.1.4.6 The Hellenistic WorldBC 323-276 Wars of Alexander’s successors… c. 290 The Colossus of Rhodes 275-215 Aristarchus, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Theocritus, Apollonius Rhodius, Manetho and Berossus c. 175 The great altar of Pergamum 2.1.5 Classical Antiquity: Rome2.1.5.1 The Roman RepublicBC 387 Rome destroyed by the Celts 338 Rome in control of Latium 200- Rome defeats Philip of Macedon; Leads to ascent of Rome, 800 years of stable power with basis in: granting of citizenship to slaves 197 and consequent loyalty to Rome and unification with other cities 67-62 Pompey: suppression of piracy; campaigns 2.1.5.2 Julius CaesarBC 58 Conquest of Gaul [France, Belgium, parts of Holland, Germany and Switzerland;] flowering of Latin literature: Lucretius, Catullus, Cicero, and Caesar 48 Defeats Pompey at Pharsalus 48-47 In Egypt with Cleopatra VII 46 Reform of Roman Calendar 44 Assassinated 2.1.5.3 Augustan EmpireBC 31- AD 68 Classic age of Latin literature: Virgil, Horace, Livy, Ovid, Seneca, Petronius AD 6 Judea taken over by Romans; revolutionary “Messianic” movements develop 30 Jesus crucified 75-100 Four Gospels written 2.1.5.4 The Later Roman Empire2.1.5.5 Late Roman society and culture [interaction of power, knowledge and faith]AD 250 Plotinus, Neoplatonism begins 381 Council of Constantinople; Doctrine of the Trinity completed 391 Theodosius I prohibits all pagan worship 410 Sack of Rome by Visigoths followed by Christian Apologetics, notably Augustine’s City of God 431 Council of Ephesus 451 Council of Chalcedon 496 Conversion of Franks to Christianity 534 Completion of Justinian’s law code 641 Death of Heraclius; Gospels have been translated into 10 languages; Christian missionaries working in China 2.2 THE WORLD: 500 – 15002.2.1 The Arabs2.2.1.1 The Arabs and the Rise of Islam2.2.1.2 The Disruption and Decline of the Arab EmpireBC 853 First reference to Arabs in an inscription of the Assyrian Shalmaneser AD 24 Expedition of Aelius Gallus to South Arabia 530 Christian Abyssinia’s invasion of South Arabia 570 Birth of Muhammad in Mecca 622 Hijra [migration] of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina; beginning of the Islamic era 630 Mecca conquered by Muhammad and becomes the spiritual center of Islam 632 Death of Muhammad; succession of Abu Bakr as the first caliph 632-786 Ascent of Arab Empire 786 Accession of Harun al-Rashid; Abbasid courtly life at its best 786-c.1600 Disruption and decline of the Arab Empire 1639 Ottomans seize Iraq from Persia 2.2.1.3 Islamic CivilizationAD 500-622 Pre-Islamic poetry flourishes in Arabia 650 Official version of Koran 670 Great Mosque of Qayrawan in Tunisia 696 Arab coinage introduced by Abd al-Malik; Arabic becomes official administrative language of the empire 751 Arabs learn papermaking from captured Chinese prisoners; use of paper spreads westward in the empire 765 School of medicine founded in Baghdad 767 Death of Abu Hanifa, founder of Hanifite School of Law 785 Building of Great Mosque of Cordova by Abd al-Rahman 795 Death of Anas ibn Malik, founder of Malikite School of Law 813-833 Translation movement; Arabic science and learning flourishes; espousal of Mu’tazilism as the official theology 815 Death of Abu Niwas, celebrated poet of Abbasid court 820 Death of Shafi’i, founder of Shafi’ite School of Law 850 Death of Kindi, first Arab philosopher 855 Death of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, founder of Hanbalite School of Law 876 Building of ibn Tulun mosque in Cairo 877 Death of Hunayn ibn Ishaq, most prominent translator of Greek works 922 Execution of Hallaj, Sufi Mystic, for heresy 925 Death of Razi, physician and scientist 950 Death of Farabi, philosopher 965 Death of Mutanabbi, neoclassical poet 970 Mosque-University of al-Azhar built in Cairo by the Fatimids 1010 Firdawsi, Persian poet, completes his Epic of Kings 1030 Death of Biruni, physician, physicist, astronomer, mathematician, geographer, and historian 1037 Death of ibn Sina [Avicenna,] physician and philosopher 1067 Nizmiyya Madrasa academy established in Baghdad; Ash’arasim established as orthodox theology 1111 Death of Ghazali, mystic and theologian 1123 Death of Omar Khayyam, poet and astronomer 1198 Death of ibn Rushd [Averroes,] Aristotelian philosopher 1229 Death of Yaqut, geographer 1273 Death of Jalal al-Din al-Rumi, Persian mystic and poet 1325 Ibn Batuta begins his travels 1353 Completion of Alhambra in Granada 1390 Death of Hafiz, Persian lyric poet 1406 Death of ibn Khaldun, Arab historian 2.2.1.4 Jews in the Arab WorldAD 500-550 Compilation of the Babylonian Talmud c. 650 Beginning of Babylonian Gaonate 760-763 Gaonate of Yehudai c. 760 Anan, religious leader c. 800 Beginning of Karaite sect 882-942 Saadiah Gaon c.950 Hasdai ibn Shaprut of Cordova, physician and scholar 968-1038 Gaonate of Sherira and Hai 992-1055 Samuel ibn Nagrela of Granada c.1000-1148 Golden Age of Spanish Hebrew Literature c.1075-1141 Judah ha-Levi, poet 1135-1204 Moses Maimonedes 1147-1148 Almohade conquest of Spain 2.2.2 Asia and Africa2.2.2.1 Sub-Saharan AfricaAD c. 3-4th cent. Rise of empire of Ghana 4th cent. Rise of Christian Kingdom of Axum [Ethiopia] c. 800 Founding of kingdom of Kanem c. 1040 Mission of Abdallah to the Goddala c. 1075 Almoravid conquest of Ghana c. 1090 Conversion to Islam of Mai of Kanem 11th-114th cents. Building of “Great Zimbabwe” complex c. 1100 Earliest evidence of stone mosques on East African coast; founding of Timbuktu 12th-16th cents. Rule of Zagwe dynasty in Ethiopia c. 1200 Rise of sultanate of Kilwa 1203 Sack of Ghana by Sumanguru of Susu 1230 Accession of sun Dyata of Mali 1235 Battle of Kirina 1324-1325 Pilgrimage to Mecca of Musa I, mansa of Mali c. 1464 Accession of sonni Ali Ber of Songhai 1482 Building of Elmina Castle [São Jorge da Mina] 1488 Doubling of Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomeu Dias 1493 Accession of askiya Muhammad the Great of Songhai 1498 Arrival of Portuguese on East African coast 1590-1591 Moroccan invasion of the western Sudan 2.2.2.2 The Chinese Empire: The Great EraAD 561-618 Sui dynasty 605-610 Grand Canal built 612-614 Korean campaigns 618-907 T’ang dynasty 627-649 Reign of T’ai-tsung 630 Defeat of Eastern Turks 656 Defeat of Western Turks 690-705 Reign of Empress Wu 713-755 Reign of Hsüan-tsung 751 Battle of Talas River 755 Rebellion of An Lu-shan 780 Tax reform 821 Peace between China and Tibet 840 Uighur empire destroyed 841-845 Religious persecutions 879 Looting of Canton 907-960 China divided 960-1126 Northern Sung dynasty 1004 Peace between China and Liao 1024 World’s first paper currency 1044 Peace between China and His-hsia 1069-1075 Wang An-shih in power 1125 Liao empire destroyed 1127-1279 Southern Sung dynasty 1130-1200 Chu Hsi 1135 Lin-an capital of Southern Sung 1141 Peace between China and Chin 2.2.2.3 The Chinese Empire: Foreign PowersAD c. 1167-1227 Chinggis Khan 1217 Mongols conquer Tarim Basin 1221 Mongols conquer West Turkestan and Afghanistan 1222 Chinggis Khan raids India 1227 Mongols conquer His-hsia 1229-1241 Ögödei Great Khan 1234 Mongols conquer Chin empire 1238 Mongols take Moscow 1251-1259 Möngke Great Khan 1252 Mongols conquer Nan-chao and eastern Tibet 1258 Mongols take Baghdad, conquer Korea 1260-1294 Khubilai Great Khan 1274 Mongols raid Kyūshū 1275-1292 Marco Polo in China 1279 Mongols conquer Southern Sung 1280-1367 Yüan dynasty 1281 Unsuccessful Mongol invasion of Kyūshū 1293 Unsuccessful Mongol invasion of Java 1268-1644 Ming dynasty 1336-1405 Timur [Tamerlane] 1424 Death of Yung-lo Emperor 1405-1433 Voyages of Cheng Ho 1419 Death of Tsong-kha-pa 1421 Peking capital of China 1428 Annam independent 1449 Oirats raid China 1514 Coming of the Westerners 1522 Tax reform 1550 Tatars raid China 1557 Portuguese gain possession of Macao 1607 Peace between China and Japan 1618 Outbreak of fighting between Manchus and China 1644 Suicide of last Ming emperor; Manchus enter Peking 2.2.2.4 Early JapanAD 552 Traditional and approximate date for the introduction of Buddhism from Korea 710 First permanent capital at Nara 794 Capital at Heian-kyō [Kyoto] 1185 Minamoto clan victorious in struggle with Taira 1192 Minamoto Yoritomo receives title of Shogun 1274, 1281 Abortive attempts by Mongols under Khubilai Khan to invade Japan 1333 Overthrow of Kamakura shogunate 1338 Establishment of new shogunate dynasty, the Ashikaga 2.2.2.5 IndiaAD 500 Pandyas ruling at Madurai c. 540 End of Gupta dynasty c. 540 Rise of Chalukyas at Vatapi c. 606-646 Harsha of Kanauj 700-800 Spread of Buddhism to Nepal and Tibet 711 Arab invasion of Sindh c. 750 Rise of imperial Pratiharas; rise of Rashtrakutas 760 Palas in Bengal c. 846 Rise of Cholas and defeat of Pallavis c. 970 Reemergence of Chalukyan power and defeat of Rashtrakutas 1001 Beginning of raids by Turks under Mahmud of Ghazni 1024 Destruction of Somnath by Mahmud 1175 First Indian expedition by Muhammad Ghuri 1192 Defeat at Tarain of Prithvi Raja by the Turks 1206-1290 Slave dynasty [beginning of Delhi Sultanate] 1290-1320 Khalji Sultans 1320-1413 Tughluq Sultans 1336 Founding of Vijayanagar 1347 founding of Bahmani Sultanate 1398 Invasion of Timur 1414-1451 Sayyid Sultans 1451-1426 Lodi Sultans 1498 Arrival of Vasco da Gama 2.2.2.6 Southeast AsiaAD c. 657-681 Reign of Jayavarman I [Khmer] 671 Visit to Srivijaya of pilgrim I-tsing 732 Accession of Sanjaya [Java] 929 Accession of Sindok [Java] 1002-1050 Reign of Suryavarman I [Khmer] 1044 Founding of Empire of Pagan [Burma] c. 1222 Founding of Singosari [Java] 1268 Accession of Kertanagara [Java] 1287 Mongol conquest of Pagan [Burma] 1292 Visit of Marco Polo to Perlak [Sumatra] 1293 Mongol invasion of Java; founding of Empire of Majapahit 1330-1364 Rule of Gaja Mada, mapatih of Majapahit 1350 Founding of T’ai kingdom of Ayt’ia [Siam] c. 1402 Founding of Malacca 1431 Fall of Angkor [Khmer] 1448-1488 Reign of Trailok [Siam] 1450 Promulgation of the “Palace Law” of Siam 1511 Portuguese conquest of Malacca 2.2.3 Medieval Europe2.2.3.1 Early Middle Ages2.2.3.1.1 Roman and Byzantine EmperorsAD 284-305 Diocletian 306-337 Constantine 527-565 Justinian I 717-741 Leo I the Isaurian 2.2.3.1.2 Frankish Kings and Western Emperors [Since 800]416-751 Merovingian house 741-928 Carolingian house 768-814 Charlemagne 813-840 Louis the Pious 876-888 Charles III the Fat 2.2.3.1.3 German Kings and Emperors919-1024 Saxon or Ottonian house 910-936 Henry I the Fowler 936-972 Otto I 983-1002 Otto III 1024-1137 Salian house 2.2.3.1.4 French Kings888/987 ff. Capetian house 2.2.3.1.5 Roman Pontiffs392-496 Gelasius I 590-604 Gregory I 858-867 Nicholas I 1073-1085 Gregory VII 1088-1099 Urban II 1130-1143 Innocent II 2.2.3.1.6 Ecclesiastical Intellectuals260-340 Lactantius c. 340-420 Jerome 354-430 St. Augustine 816-840 Agobard, archbishop of Lyons c. 810-c. 877 Johannes Scotus Erigena 847-882 Hincmar, archbishop of Reims 2.2.3.2 The High Middle Ages2.2.3.2.1 Roman PontiffsAD 1198-1216 Innocent III 1294-1303 Boniface VIII 1316-1334 John XXII 2.2.3.2.2 German Emperors1138-1268 Hohenstaufen house 1212-1250 Frederick II 1268 Death of Conradin 1314-1347 Louis of Bavaria, Wittelsbach 2.2.3.2.3 English and French Princes1154 ff. England’s Angevine house 987-1328 France’s Capetians 1285-1314 Philip IV the Fair 12566/1268 ff. Anjou cadet line in Sicily-Naples 2.2.3.2.4 Orders of the Church910 Cluny [reformed Benedictine] 1098 Cistercian order 1118/1128 Templars [military order] 1120 Premonstratensians [canons-regular] 1201 Humiliati [quasi-mendicant] 1209 Franciscans [mendicant] 1215 Dominicans [mendicant] 2.2.3.2.5 Churchmen and Intellectuals1079-1142 Peter Abelard 1090-1153 Bernard of Clairvaux 1126-1198 Averroes c. 1130-1202 Joachim of Fiore 1225-1274 Thomas Aquinas 2.2.3.2.6 Church Councils1179 III Lateran 1215 IV Lateran 1245 I Lyon 1274 II Lyon 1311 Vienne 2.2.3.3 The Late Middle Ages2.2.3.3.1 Princes and DynastiesAD 1272/ 1314/1438 ff. Hapsburg Emperors 1328 French Capetians replaced by Valois 1485 English Angevins replaced by Tudors 2.2.3.3.2 Soldiers, Magistrates, Artists, and Businessmenc. 1267-1337 Giotto, son of Bondone, of Florence 1313-1354 Cola, son of Rienzi 1394 Death of John Hawkwood c. 1395-1456 Jacques Coeur c.1394-1476 John Fortescue 2.2.3.3.3 Intellectuals1221-1274 Bonaventure 1282 Death of Siger of Brabant c. 1214-1292 Roger Bacon 1274-1208 John Duns Scotus c. 1250-1312 Peter Dubois c. 1240-1313 Arnold of Villanova c.1235-1315 Raymond Lull 1265-1321 Dante Alighieri 1328 Death of John of Jandun c. 1275-1342 Marsiglio of Padua c. 1300-1349 William of Ockham 1304-1374 Francis Petrarch c. 1329-1384 John Wycliffe c. 1369-1415 John Hus 1483-1546 Martin Luther 2.2.3.4 The Jews in Medieval EuropeAD c. 359 Jewish Calendar committed to writing by Hillel II 425 End of Jewish patriarchate 425-475 Compilation of Palestinian Talmud 613-711 Visigothic persecutions of the Jews in Spain 813-840 Reign of Louis the Pious; earliest known diplomas of privileges to Jews 1144 Death of William of Norwich; beginning of medieval blood accusation 1215 Fourth Lateran Council; yellow badge 1290 Expulsion of Jews from England 1306 Expulsion of Jews from France 1348 Black Death persecutions; beginning of ghettoization in Germany 1391 Pogroms in Spain; beginning of Marranism 1481 Inquisition proceedings begin in Spain 1492 Expulsion of Jews from Spain 1516 Establishment of ghetto in Venice 1648-1658 Chmielnicki uprisings and massacres in Ukraine and Poland 1666 Sabbetai Zevi’s abortive messianic movement collapses 2.2.4 Byzantium2.2.4.1 Early ByzantiumAD 330 Dedication of the city of Constantinople 527-565 Reign of Justinian the Great 578 The Slavs reach the Peloponnese 610 Accession of Heraclius I 636 First Arab defeat of Byzantium; beginning of the conquest of Syria and Asia Minor 641 Arab conquest of Byzantine Egypt 717 Lifting of the last Arab siege of Constantinople by Leo III 717-796 Isaurian dynasty 726-730 Beginning of the Iconoclastic Controversy 763 Constantine V’s victory over the Bulgars at Anchialus 787 Restoration of images by the Second Council of Nicaea 796 Coup d’état of Irene 800 Coronation of Charlemagne at Rome 813 First Bulgar siege of Constantinople 815 Beginning of the second period of iconoclasm 820-867 Amorian dynasty 828 Arabs begin the conquest of Byzantine Sicily 838 Arabs take Amorium 843 Council of Orthodoxy ends the Iconoclastic Controversy 863 Michael III’s victory over the Arabs at Poson 863-864 Cyrillo-Methodian mission to the Slavs 864 Conversion of Boris-Michael of Bulgaria 867 Murder of Michael III; accession of Basil I the Macedonian 2.2.4.2 Later ByzantiumAD 867-1056 Macedonian dynasty 876 Byzantine recapture of the Cicilian gates; beginning of Byzantine reconquest of southern Italy 926 Second Bulgar siege of Constantinople 931 Beginning of Byzantine reconquest of Syria 944-959 Reign of Constantine VII of Porphyrogenitus 965 Byzantium retakes Crete and Cyprus 975 John I Tzimisces reconquers Syria and Palestine 976-1025 Reign of Basil II 1000 Basil II’s campaign in Transcaucasia 1014 Basil II’s annihilation of the First Bulgarian Empire 1041 Start of Norman conquest of southern Italy 1054 Great Schism between Rome and Constantinople 1071 Seljuk defeat of Byzantium at Manazkert 1081-1185 Comnenian dynasty 1082 Grant of commercial privileges to Venice 1097 Arrival of the First Crusade at Constantinople 1143-1180 Reign of Manuel I 1159 Manuel I’s entrance into Antioch 1176 Byzantine defeat at Myriokephalon 1182 Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople 1185-1204 Angeli dynasty 1204 Sack of Constantinople by the Latins 1204-1261 Latin Empire of Constantinople; Lascarid dynasty at Nicaea 1205 Defeat of the Latin Empire by the Bulgars 1230 Defeat of Epirus at Klokotnica 1259 Michael VIII’s defeat of the Latins at Pelagonia 1261 Michael VIII retakes Constantinople 1261-1453 Paleologue dynasty 1274 Union of Lyons 1282 Death of Michael VIII 1304 Revolt of the Catalan mercenaries 1346 Coronation of Stephen Dušan Czar of Serbia 1365 Ottoman capital shifted to Andrinople in Thrace 1369 Journey of John V Paleologus to the West 1389 Ottoman victory at Kossovo 1396 Failure of the Crusade of Nicopolis 1399-1400 Journey of Manuel II Paleologus to the West 1438-1439 Council of Union at Florence 1444 Failure of the Crusade at Varna 1453 Ottomans capture Constantinople 2.2.4.3 The Slavs and Early Russia
2.3 TOWARD MODERNITY2.3.1 The Renaissance and Reformation in Europe2.3.1.1 The State System of the Italian RenaissanceAD 1250 Death of Frederick II and beginning of the imperial interregnum 1380 Removal of the papacy from Rome to Avignon 1321 Death of Dante c. 1325 Beginning of regular sea traffic between Italy and northern Europe via the open Atlantic 1327 Earliest mention of an artillery piece in the documents 1342 Petrarch’s Italia mia 1347 Outbreak of the Black Death 1378 Beginning of the Great Schism 1385-1402 Reign of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan 1404-1414 Reign of Ladislas of Durazzo, King of Naples 1414 Opening of the Council of Constance 1434 Accession to power in Florence of Cosimo de’ Medici 1450 Francesco Sforza becomes Duke of Milan 1457 Publication of the first surviving dated printed book 1469 Succession to power in Florence of Lorenzo the Magnificent 1494 First French invasion of Italy; fall of the Medici and reestablishment of the Florentine Republic 1497 Vasco da Gama reaches India by sea 1502 The Spanish conquer Naples 1513 Machiavelli’s Prince 1530 Fall of the last Florentine Republic; return of the Medici 1535 Charles V occupies Milan as an imperial fief 2.3.1.2 Humanism and SocietyAD 1341 Petrarch crowned poet laureate on the Capitoline in Rome 1353 Boccaccio’s Decameron 1375 Coluccio Salutati appointed chancellor of the Florentine Republic 1404 Pier Paolo Vergerio’s Concerning Liberal Studies, the first humanist treatise on education 1414 Poggio Bracciolini discovers Quintillian’s De institutione oratoria in the library of the monastery of St. Gallen in Switzerland 1429 Leonardo Bruni finishes his History of Florence 1440 Lorenzo Valla’s On the True Good [or On Pleasure] 1450 Pope Nicholas V founds the Vatican Library 1456 Giannozzo Manetti enters the service of King Alfonso of Naples 1462 Establishment of the Platonic Academy in Florence c. 1469 Marsilio Ficino finishes translating into Latin the dialogues of Plato, the first complete translation into any Western language 1469 Birth of Erasmus 1486 Pico della Mirandola, Oration on the Dignity of Man 1505 Erasmus publishes Valla’s Annotations on the New Testament 1516 Pietro Pomponazzi’s On the Immortality of the Soul 2.3.1.3 Renaissance ArtAD c. 1255-1319 Duccio di Buoninsegna c. 1276-1337 Giotto 1337-1466 Filippo Brunelleschi c. 1386-1466 Donatello 1387-1455 Fra Angelico 1401-1428 Masaccio 1404-1472 Leon Battista Alberti c. 1426-1492 Piero della Francesca c. 1430-1516 Giovanni Bellini 1431-1506 Andrea Mantegna 1444-1510 Botticelli 1444-1514 Bramante 1452-1519 Leonardo da Vinci 1471-1528 Albrecht Dürer 1475-1564 Michelangelo 1477-1576 Titian c. 1478-1510 Giorgione 1483-1520 Raphael 1494-1534 Correggio 1511-1574 Giorgio Vasari 1518-1590 Andrea Palladio 1518-1594 Tintoretto 1528-1588 Paolo Veronese 2.3.1.4 The Reformation: DoctrineAD 1505 Martin Luther joins the Augustinian Order 1512 Luther appointed professor of Holy Scriptures at the University of Wittenberg 1516 First edition of the New Testament in Greek 1517 Luther’s theses against indulgences 1518 Zwingli called to be minister at Zurich 1520 Luther’s Open Letter to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, The Babylonian Captivity of the Church, and On Christian Liberty; Luther’s excommunication 1521 Diet of Worms 1524 Erasmus defends the freedom of the will against Luther 1525 Conrad Grebel baptizes Georg Blaurock: the beginning of Anabaptism; the Reformation established in Zurich 1527 The Schleitheim Confession, first Anabaptist doctrinal statement 1529 Colloquy of Marburg 1531 Death of Zwingli at the Battle of Kappel 1534 First complete edition of Luther’s translation of the Bible 1546 Death of Martin Luther 1564 Death of John Calvin 2.3.1.5 The Reformation: SocietyAD 1509-1547 Reign of Henry VIII of England 1515-1547 Reign of Francis I of France 1516 Concordat at Bologna 1519 Election of Charles V as Emperor 1521 Diet of Worms: beginning of Hapsburg-Valois wars 1524-1525 Peasant Revolt in Germany 1525 Battle of Pavia; Francis I taken prisoner 1526 Defeat of Hungarians by the Turks at the Battle of Mohács 1527 Sack of Rome by an imperial army 1528 Basel and Berne accept Reformation 1530 Diet of Augsburg; German Protestant princes declare faith in the Augsburg Confession 1534 Day of Placards; Act of Supremacy 1538 Geneva accepts the Reformation 1540 Society of Jesus approved by the pope 1542 Roman Inquisition established 1545 Opening of the Council of Trent 1546 Death of Martin Luther 1547 Battle of Milberg: Charles V defeats the Protestant Schmalkaldic League 1547-1553 Reign of Edward VI of England 1547-1559 Reign of Henry II of France 1553-1558 Reign of Mary of England 1555 Religious Peace of Augsburg on the principle of cuius regio, eius religio 1556 Abdication of Charles V in Spain and Empire; accession of Phillip II of Spain 1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis: end of Hapsburg-Valois wars 2.3.1.6 The Counter ReformationAD 1528 Founding of the Capuchin order 1536 Commission of Cardinals established by Pope Paul III to reform the papal court 1540 Founding of the Society of Jesus 1542 Roman Inquisition established by the papal bull Licot ab initio 1545-1547 First session of the Council of Trent 1548 Publication of the Spiritual Exercises by St. Ignatius of Loyola 1549 Death of Pope Paul III 1551-1552 Second session of the Council of Trent 1555 The Peace of Augsburg, religious-political settlement of Germany; Gian Caraffa elected as Pope Paul IV 1558 Diego Laynez elected general of the Society of Jesus 1559 Death of Pope Paul III 1560 Carlo Borromeo launches Catholic model reform as archbishop of Milan 1562 Neo-Scholasticism stimulated by publication of the Loci Theologici of Melchor Cano 1562-1563 Third and final session of the Council of Trent 1564 Revised Index of Prohibited Books promulgated by Pope Pius IV 1568 St. John of the Cross founds the discalced Carmelites 1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in France 1573 Veronese called before the Inquisition to defend the orthodoxy of his painting 1575 St. Philip Neri reforms and extends the Oratory 1582 Death of St. Theresa of Avila 1584 Publication of the Jesuit educational program, the Ratio Studiorum 1586 Robert Bellarmine publishes Volume I of Disputation of the Heretics of Our Times 1609 St. Francis of Sales publishes the Introduction to the Devout Life 1629 Edict of Restitution restores much land to the Roman Church in Germany 1648 Peace of Westphalia 2.3.2 Building the Early Modern State2.3.2.1 The Golden Age of SpainAD 1545 Opening of Potosi mines, Bolivia 1556 Abdication of Charles V; his son, Philip II, becomes king of Spain 1557 Bankruptcy of Spanish Crown 1568 Outbreak of revolt in Netherlands 1571 Victory of Lepanto, against Turks; repression of revolt of the Moriscos 1575 El Greco arrives in Spain 1579 Disgrace and arrest of principal minister, Antonio Pérez 1584 Direct Spanish intervention into French civil wars 1587 Sir Francis Drake destroys Spanish fleet at Cádiz 1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada 1591 Revolt of Aragon 1597 Bankruptcy of the Spanish Crown 1598 Death of Phillip II: Phillip III, his son, becomes king; Lope de Vega presents Arcadia 1605 Cervantes publishes Part I of Don Quixote 1609 Expulsion of the Meriscos 1612 Suárez publishes De Legibus ac Deo Legislatore 1616 Spanish forced to leave Japan 1621 Rise to power of Count Duke Olivares 1628 Zurbarán, the painting of St. Serapion 1630 Velázquez completes painting Vulcan’s Forge 1640 Revolt of Catalans and Portuguese 1643 Defeat of Spanish army by French at Rocroi 2.3.2.2 The Rise of the Dutch RepublicAD 1556 Abdication of Charles V of Hapsburg as Lord of the Netherlands; succession of Philip II of Spain 1559 Philip II leaves Netherlands and returns to Spain, which becomes center of his government; beginning of opposition of higher nobility against government of king’s confidants in the Netherlands 1566-1567 First outbreaks of large-scale revolts as well as iconoclastic movements against the Church; Philip II sends the Duke of Alva to suppress the uprising; William of Orange flees the country 1572 Successful attack of William of Orange, who occupies provinces of Holland and Zeeland 1576 Other provinces join the rebellion [Pacification of Ghent] 1579 Walloon nobility defects from the rebellion [Treaty of Arras]; Alexander of Parma commander of the Spanish troops 1581 Revolutionary Estates General depose Philip II as Lord of the Netherlands 1584 Assassination of William of Orange 1585 Parma takes Antwerp; rebels withdraw behind the great rivers 1588-1609 Dutch drive the Spanish out of northern Netherlands; attempts at liberation of the south fail 1609-1621 Truce between Republic of the United Netherlands and Spain 1625-1648 The Republic joins the anti-Spanish coalition 1648 Peace of Westphalia; de jure recognition of independence of the Republic 2.3.2.3 The Collapse of FranceAD 1559 Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis; death of Henry II 1561 Colloquium of Poissy 1562 Outbreak of civil war between Protestants and royal troops 1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre 1574 Death of Charles IX; assembly of Millau, establishes firmer government for French Protestants 1576 Jean Bodin publishes Six Books for the Republic; Estates General of Blois, seeks religious compromise and fails 1578 Duke of Anjou invades Low Countries; founding of the Order of the Holy Spirit 1579 Publication of the Vindiciae contre Tyrannes 1580 Publication of the first edition of the Essays of Montaigne 1587 Battle of Coutras, first pitched battle won by the Protestants 1588 Revolt of Paris against Henry III 1589 Assassination of the Guises on Henry III’s orders; assassination of Henry III 1590 Battle of Ivey, victory of Henry IV against the Catholic League 1593 Henry IV abjures Protestantism 1595 Henry IV absolved of his heresy by Pope Clement VIII 1597 Siege of Amiens 1598 Treaty of Vervins, ends war between France and Spain; Edict of Nantes 2.3.2.4 Elizabethans and PuritansAD 1485 Battle of Bosworth; accession of Henry VII 1509 Death of Henry VII; accession of Henry VIII 1529 Fall of Cardinal Wolsey 1529-1536 Reformation of Parliament 1536-1540 Execution of Thomas Cromwell 1547 Death of Henry VIII; accession of Edward VI 1553 Death of Edward VI; accession of Mary I 1558 Death of Mary I; accession of Elizabeth I 1563 Thirty-Nine Articles; Statute of Apprentices 1570 Elizabeth I excommunicated by Pope Pius V 1587 Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots 1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada 1600 East India Company Chartered 1603 Death of Elizabeth I; accession of James I 1611 Authorized Version [King James Version] of the Bible 1618 Beginning of Thirty Years’ War 1625 Death of James I; accession of Charles I 1628 Petition of Right adopted; assassination of the Duke of Buckingham 1629-1640 Period of personal rule: the “Eleven Years’ Tyranny” 1640 Short Parliament [April-May]; Long Parliament convenes in November 1641 Execution of the Earl of Strafford; Irish Rebellion begins 1643 Death of John Pym 1642-1646 First Civil War 1645 Execution of William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury 1648 Second Civil War; Pride’s Purge 1649 Execution of Charles I 1653-1658 Protectorate under Oliver Cromwell 1658 Death of Oliver Cromwell; succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard 1660 Restoration of Charles II 1662 Beginning of the “Bartholomew Ejections” following Act of Uniformity; expulsion of ministers creates English Nonconformity 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover between Charles II and Louis XIV 1678 Popish Plot 1679 Habeas Corpus Act 1679-1681 Exclusion crisis 1681-1685 Charles II rules without Parliament 1685 Death of Charles II; accession of James II 1688-1689 Glorious Revolution replaces James II with William of Orange and Mary; Bill of Rights; Mutiny Act; Toleration Act 1689-1697 War of the League of Augsburg [King William’s War] 1694 Bank of England chartered; Triennial Act; Death of Queen Mary 1697 Treaty of Ryswick 1701 Act of Settlement 1702 Death of William III; accession of Queen Anne 1702-1713 War of the Spanish Succession [Queen Anne’s War] 1707 Act of Union with Scotland 1713 Treaty of Utrecht 1714 Death of Queen Anne; accession of King George I 1721 Sir Robert Walpole becomes Prime Minister 2.3.2.5 The Thirty Years’ WarAD 1612 Ferdinand II becomes king of Hungary and Bohemia 1618 Defenestration of Prague 1620 Battle of White Mountain 1621 End of the Spanish-Dutch truce 1623 Maximilian of Bavaria receives electoral vote held previously by Palatinate 1624 Richelieu enters and soon dominates royal council; French-Dutch treaty 1626 Defeat pf Danish troops in Brunswick by Count Tilly 1629 Edict of Restitution 1630 Electoral Assembly of Regensburg insists on Wallenstein’s resignation; Gustavus Adolphus lands in northern Germany, is subsidized by France 1631 Capture and massacre of Magdeburg 1632 Battle of Lützen, Hapsburg defeat; death of Gustavus Adolphus 1634 Assassination of Wallenstein 1635 Treaty of Prague; French declaration of war against Spain 1636 Capture of Corbie by the Spanish 1639 Revolt of the Nu-Pieds in France 1640 Revolts of the Catalans and the Portuguese 1643 Defeat of the Spanish by the French at the Battle of Rocroi; war between Denmark and Sweden 1646 Invasion of Bavaria by Swedish and French troops 1648 Peace of Westphalia 2.3.2.6 The Rise of Modern Political ThoughtAD 1494 Invasion of Italy by French troops 1513-1521 Niccolò Machiavelli writes The Prince and The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Livy 1517 Martin Luther posts 95 theses on church door at Wittenberg; Reformation usually dated from this moment 1525 Sack of Rome 1562-1594 Series of religious wars in France 1572 St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in Paris, slaughter of the Huguenots 1576 Jean Bodin publishes Six Books of the Republic 1594 Henry IV takes Paris 1610 Henry IV is assassinated 1618-1648 Thirty Years’ War 1642 Civil war begins in England 1649 Charles I of England beheaded 1651 Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan 1656 James Harrington publishes The Commonwealth of Oceana 1658 Oliver Cromwell dies 1660 Restoration of the monarchy in England; Charles II [1660-1685] 1661 Louis XIV of France assumes sole rule after Mazarin 1670 Baruch [Benedict de] Spinoza publishes, anonymously, Tractacus Theologico-Politicus 1685-1688 Reign of James II in England 1688-1689 Glorious Revolution; James II dethroned; William and Mary 1690 John Locke publishes Two Treatises of Civil Government, published ten years before 2.3.3 Toward One World2.3.3.1 The Commercial PowersAD 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divides overseas world between Spain and Portugal 1570’s First raids by English and Dutch on Spanish empire in South America; breakdown of Portuguese monopoly in the Indian Ocean 1600 Foundation of the English East India Company 1602 Foundation of the Dutch East India Company 1609 Foundation of the Bank of Amsterdam 1619 Foundation of the Bank of Hamburg 1621 Foundation of the Dutch West India Company 1624 Dutch drive English out of spice trade in the East Indies 1629 Dutch obtain rights to trade at Arkhangelsk 1635 Foundation of Compagnie française des îles d’Amerique 1639 English establish themselves in Madras 1651 Navigation Acts in England, directed against Dutch trade 1652-1674 Period of Anglo-Dutch wars; peace of 1674 results in division of colonial spheres between England and Holland, in which America goes to England and East Indies go to Holland 1689-1713 Period of Anglo-Dutch coalition wars against France of Louis XIV 1713 Peace of Utrecht gives England trading rights in Spanish American empire; decline of the Dutch 2.3.3.2 The Ottoman EmpireAD 1326-1359 Reign of Orkhan I 1359-1389 Reign of Murad I 1365 Ottoman capital shifted to Andrinople in Thrace 1371 Ottoman defeat of the Serbs on the Marica 1389 First Battle of Kossovo 1402 Defeat of Bajazet I Yilderim by Tamerlane 1444 Ottoman defeat of the Christian “Crusade” at Varna 1448 Second Battle of Kossovo 1451-1481 Reign of Muhammad II the Conqueror 1453 Ottoman capture of Constantinople by Muhammad II the Conqueror 1514 Ottoman defeat of the Safavids at Caldiran 1517 Ottoman capture of Cairo; surrender of Mecxa 1520-1566 Reign of Suleiman I the Magnificent[Kanuni] 1521 Ottoman capture of Belgrade 1522 Ottoman capture of Rhodes 1526 Ottoman defeat of the Hungarians at Mohács 1529 First Ottoman siege of Vienna; Ottomans acquire Algerian bases 1534 Ottoman capture of Tabriz and Iraq 1536 Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France 1547 Larger part of Hungary ceded to the Ottomans 1555 Ottoman-Safavid peace 1571 Battle of Lepanto 1606 Peace of Sitvartorok 1630 Memorandum of Koça Bey 1641-1687 Reign of Muhammad IV; abolition of the devşirme 1656-1676 Ottoman revival under Köprülü viziers 1683 Second Ottoman siege of Vienna 1696 Capture of Azov by Peter the Great 1697 Eugene of Savoy’s defeat of the Ottomans at Zenta 1699 Peace of Karlowitz 1703-1730 Cultural revival under Ahmed III 1718 Peace of Passarowitz 1724-1730 Victories of Nadir Shah in Transcaucasia 1757-1774 Reign of Mustafa III; Ayans granted official status 1774 Treaty of Kuçuk Kaynarca 1783 Russian annexation of the Crimea 1792 Treaty of Jassy 1793 Selim III proclaims the “New Order” 1798-1799 Napoleon’s campaign in Egypt 1801 Russian annexation of Georgia 1804 Serbian revolt 1822-1830 Greek war of independence 1826 Massacre of the Janissaries; Ottoman fleet sunk at Navarino 1829 Treaty of Andrinople 1833 Treaty of Unkiar-skellessi 1840 Treaty of London concedes Egypt to Muhammad Ali 1841 Straits Convention 1853-1856 Crimean War 1856 Hatt-i Humayun 1876 Mihrdat Pasa proclaims the Ottoman Constitution 1877 Ottoman Constitution allowed to lapse 1878 Congress of Berlin 1883 Creation of Public Debt Control 1908 Formation of the Committee of Union and Progress [Young Turks]; Constitution Restored 1909 Deposition of Abdul-Hamid II 2.3.3.3 European Voyages of ExplorationAD 1415 Portuguese capture of Ceuta 1433 Cape Bojador rounded by Gil Eannes 1482 Building of Elmina Castle [São Jorge de Mina] 1484 Discovery of Congo estuary by Diogo Cão 1488 Doubling of Cape of Good Hope by Bartolomeu Dias 1492 Discovery of America [Bahama Islands] by Christopher Columbus 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas 1497 Voyage to North America by John Cabot 1497-1498 Voyage to Calicut [India] by Vasco da Gama 1500 Discovery of Brazil by Pedro Cabral 1510 Portuguese capture of Goa 1513 First sighting of the Pacific by Núñez de Balboa 1519-1521 Conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortéz 1519-1522 Circumnavigation of the world: begun by Ferdinand Magellan, completed by Sebastián del Cano 1529 Treaty of Zaragosa 1531-1648 Conquest of Peru by Francisco Pizarro 1534-1535 Exploration of Gulf of St. Lawrence by Jacques Cartier 1553 Voyage to Archangel by Richard Chancellor 1576-1578 Search for the Northwest Passage by Martin Frobisher 1585 Planting of first English colony in North America: Roanoke Island, North Carolina 1596 Voyage of William Barents to Novaya Zemlya 1600 Founding of the English East India Company 1602 Founding of the Netherlands East India Company 1606 Discovery of Australia by Willem Janszoon 1642 Discovery of Tasmania and New Zealand by Abel Tasman 2.3.3.4 India: 1500-1700AD 1510 Portuguese capture of Goa 1526 Defeat of the Lodi Sultan by Babur 1526-1530 Reign of Babur 1530-1538 Reign of Humayun 1538 Death of Guru Nanak 1538-1555 Interregnum under Sur dynasty 1555-1556 Humayun restores Mughal authority 1556-1605 Reign of Akbar 1565 Fall of Vijayanagar 1600 British East India Company receives charter 1605-1627 Reign of Jehangir 1628-1658 Reign of Shah Jahan 1634 English begin trading in Bengal 1639 Founding of Fort St. George, Madras 1658-1707 Reign of Aurangzeb 1674 Shivaji crowned king of Marathas; French found Pondicherry 1690 Founding of Calcutta 1708 Death of Guru Govind Singh 1739 Nadir Shah raids Delhi 1742 Marathas raid Bengal 1744-1748 War between French and British in India 2.3.3.5 Japan and ChinaAD 1542 Portuguese merchants first reach Japan 1568 Oda Nobunaga in control of Kyoto 1582 Nobunaga assassinated; rise of Hideyoshi 1592, 1597 Abortive Japanese attempts to conquer Korea 1597 First persecution of Christians in Japan 1598 Death of Hideyoshi 1600 Tokugawa Ieyasu victor at Sekigahara 1603 Establishment of Tokugawa shogunate 1638 Suppression of Christian rebellion at Shimabara 1640 Seclusion and exclusion policies in effect Early 17th cent. Unification of Manchu tribes of China by Nurhachi 1644 Peking captured by Manchus and made capital of the Ch’ing Dynasty 1661-1722 Reign of K’ang-hsi Emperor in China 1675-1683 Ch’ing conquest of south China 1688-1704 Cultural brilliance during Genroku calendrical era in Japan 1736-1796 Reign of Ch’ien-lung Emperor in China 1793 Mission of Lord Macartney to Peking 1853 Perry expedition forces end of Japanese exclusion policy 1867 Abdication of last Tokugawa shogun 2.3.3.6 Aztec and Inca CivilizationsBC 5000 Beginnings of agriculture in Mexico 2000 First Peruvian ceremonial centers 900 Chavin unification of Peru 800 Olmec unification of Mesoamerica AD 300-600 Teotihuacan empire 600-800 Huari and Tiahuanaco empires 900 Fall of classic Maya civilization 1400-1519 Aztec empire 1438-1538 Inca empire 2.3.3.7 Spain and Portugal in AmericaAD 1492 Columbus reaches the New World 1500 Cabral lays basis for Portugal’s claim by landing in Brazil on his way to India 1519 Cortéz begins his conquest of New Spain [Mexico] 1524 Council of the Indies established by Spain 1535 Antonio de Mendoza, first viceroy in Spanish America, begins rule in Mexico; Lima, Peru, is founded by Pizarro 1549 Permanent settlement of Brazil begun by Governor Thomé de Souza, and the Jesuits begin missionary labors 1550 Bartolomé de Las Casas and Juan Ginés Sepúlvada debate at Valladolid whether Indians are natural slaves according to Aristotle’s doctrine 1551 University charters granted for universities in Mexico and Peru 1580 Philip II annexes Portugal and her empire, a “captivity” lasting until 1640 1624 Dutch begin their 30-year rule in Pernambuco, Brazil 1680 Publication of the Spanish colonial code: Recopilación de Leyes de las Indias 1759 Jesuits expelled from Brazil 1767 Jesuits expelled from Spanish America 1780 Unsuccessful rebellion by Tupac Amaru against Spanish rule in Peru 2.3.3.8 The Settlement of North AmericaAD 1497 John Cabot reaches North America 1513 Ponce de Léon establishes Spanish claim to Florida 1524 Giovanni Verrazano explores coast of North America 1534 Jacques Cartier explores St. Lawrence River 1560’s French attempts to settle in Florida thwarted by Spain 1565 Spanish found first permanent settlement north of Mexico at St. Augustine, Florida 1607 First permanent English outpost established at Jamestown, Virginia 1609 Henry Hudson claims part of North America for the United Provinces 1619 First Negroes brought to British America as forced labor; Virginia begins representative assembly 1620 Separatists found Plymouth Colony 1630 Great Migration to America begins; Massachusetts founded 1630’s Connecticut, Rhode Island and New Haven colonies founded 1633 Colonization of Maryland begun 1636 Harvard College opened 1638 A Swedish settlement founded on the Delaware River 1640’s Civil wars in England causes shift in migration patterns 1655 Dutch from New Netherlands conquer New Sweden 1660 Stuart Monarchy restored 1660’s Legal definition of Negro slavery begun in Virginia 1663 Charles II grants Carolinas to eight proprietors 1664 British seize New Netherlands 1675-1676 Bacon’s rebellion in Virginia; King Philip’s War in New England 1682 William Penn founds Pennsylvania 1684-1689 Dominion of New England places several colonies under royal authority 1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in France spurs Protestant migration to America 1689-1713 King William’s War 1691 New Massachusetts’s charter puts colony under royal authority; Plymouth Colony and Maine included in new Massachusetts boundaries 1693 College of William and Mary founded 1696 Parliamentary Act establishes vice-admiralty courts to try violators; Board of Trade created by the crown 1702-1713 Queen Anne’s War 1704 Boston News-Letter begins publication 1729 North and South Carolina become separate, royal colonies 1733 Colony of Georgia founded 1739 George Whitefield first visits America 1740-1748 King George’s War 1749-1752 Benjamin Franklin experiments with electricity 1751 Philadelphia Academy [later University of Pennsylvania] founded 1754 George Washington’s clash with French soldiers signals start of French and Indian War 1763 Treaty of Paris; French Canada and Spanish Florida ceded to Great Britain 2.3.4 The Enlightenment2.3.4.1 The Scientific RevolutionBC 4th cent. Establishment of the two major philosophical schools of Greek Antiquity by Plato [427-347 BC] and Aristotle [384-322 BC] 3rd cent. Outstanding developments in mathematics, astronomy and physics, among others by Euclid of Alexandria [330-260 BC,] Aristech’s of Samoa [310-230 BC,] and Apollonius of Perga [c. 220 BC] AD 2nd cent. The synthesis of Greek astronomical thought, presented in his Almagest, by Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria [AD 127-151] 8th-12th cents. Development and spread of Arabic science and philosophy; eventually of the transmission of Aristotelian thought to the West by Islamic scholars, in particular by Averroes [1126-1198.] Origin of the base-10 number system in the work of Arabic and Hindu mathematicians of 8th-11th centuries 13th cent. Assimilation of Aristotelian philosophy into Christian doctrine in the epochal writings of St. Thomas Aquinas. Beginning of modern number notation attributed Liber abaci published by Leonardo of Pisa [Fibonacci] in 1202 1543 Publication of De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium by Nicholas Copernicus, Mikolaj Kopernik in Polish [1473-1543,] and also of Concerning the Fabric of the Human Body by Andrea Vesalius, Andries Van Wesel in Flemish [1514-1564] 1600 Publication of Concerning the Magnet [De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure, “On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies, and the Great Magnet of the Earth,”] by the English physician William Gilbert [1540-1603] 1603 Founding of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome 1605 Publication of Advancement of Learning by Francis Bacon [1561-1626] 1609 Publication of Astronomia Nova by Johannes Kepler [1571-1630,] containing his statement of the first two laws of planetary motion 1610 Publication of Sidereal Messenger by Galileo Galilei [1564-1642,] describing his telescopic observations of the heavens 1619 Publication of Kepler’s Harmonia Mundia, announcing his discovery of the third law of planetary motion 1628 Publication of On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals by the English physician William Harvey [1578-1657] 1632 Publication of Galileo’s Two Chief Systems of the World, in which Galileo argued [his conviction] for the Copernican system over the Ptolemaic and which resulted in a case being brought against him by the Inquisition 1637 Publication of the Discourse on Method by René Descartes [1596-1650] 1638 Publication of Galileo’s Discourses and Demonstrations Concerning Two New Sciences, in which he formulated an early and insightful though erroneous theory of solid mechanics [the bending and breaking of beams] and a theory with experiment of motion under uniform acceleration and of the pendulum which though limited to simple motions and dynamically incomplete was an important precursor to the work of Newton 1647 Revival of the ancient Epicurean atomic philosophy by Pierre Gassendi [1592-1655] 1657 Founding of the Accademia del Cimento in Florence 1660 Publication of New Experiments of Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of Air by the Anglo-Irish chemist and natural philosopher Robert Boyle [1627-1691] 1662 Founding of the Royal Society of London 1666 Founding of the French Academy of Science 1676 Determination of the finite velocity of light by the Danish astronomer Oleg Roemer [1644-1710] 1677 Discovery with the microscope of the existence of male spermatozoa by Anton von Leeuwenhoek [1632-1695] 1678 A wave theory of light proposed by Christian Huygens [1629-1695,] subsequently developed systematically in his Treatise on Light [1690] 1687 Publication of Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis by Isaac Newton [1642-1727] 1704 Publication of Newton’s Opticks, some of whose basic ideas had been communicated to the Royal Society in 1672 1789 Publication of Traité Elémentaire de Chimie by Antoine Lavoisier [1743-1794] 2.3.4.2 Society and PoliticsAD 1713-1715 Peace of Utrecht; death of Louis XIV; Vanbrugh’s Blenheim Palace completed 1721 Bach’s Brandenburg Concertos completed; Montesquieu’s Persian Letters 1724 Fahrenheit’s thermometer devised 1734 Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters on the English 1748 Montesquieu’s Esprit des Lois 1750 The Encyclopédie begun; the Diplomatic Revolution 1752 Franklin shows that lightning is electricity 1756-1763 Seven Years’ War 1762 Rousseau’s Social Contract 1764 The Italian criminologist Beccaria’s On Crimes and Punishments, a celebrated volume on the reform of criminal justice 1765-1790 Enlightened despots in Austria, Germany, Spain, Portugal, and France 1776 Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations; American Declaration of Independence 1778 Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais’ “private fleet” mustered I aid of rebelling Americans 1783 Beaumarchais’ Marriage of Figaro 1787-1788 Assembly of Notables; censorship lifted; Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès’ What Is the Third Estate? 1789 Outbreak of revolution in France 2.3.4.3 Science versus TheologyAD 1687 Newton’s Principia Mathematica 1690 John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1697 Pierre Bayle’s Dictionnaire historique et critique 1704 Death of John Locke 1713 The papal bull Unigenitus condemning 101 theological propositions of the Jansenist writer Pasquier Quesnel contained in the book Réflexions morales; the war against the Jesuits 1733-1734 Alexander Pope’s Essay on Man 1736 Joseph Butler’s Analogy of Religion 1736 Voltaire’s Mahomet, on toleration, praised and rewarded by the pope 1747 Julien Offroy de La Mettrie’s L'Homme-machine [Man a Machine – a materialist interpretation of human and psychic phenomena, important in the modern history of materialism] 1748 Hume’s Essay on Miracles; Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle; Montesquieu’s Esprit de Lois 1750 ff. Georges-louis Leclerc De Buffon’s Natural History [evolutionary theory] 1750-1772 Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert’s Encyclopédie 1751 Voltaire’s Age of Louis XIV 1756 Voltaire’s Essay on the Customs and Manners of Nations 1760 ff. Dictionnaire de Trévoux, Jesuit response to Encyclopédie 1762 Rousseau’s Confession of Faith of a Priest from Savoy 1764-1765 Voltaire’s Candide and Dictionairre philosophique portative 1778 Mesmer and mesmerism; death of Rousseau 1779 Hume’s posthumously published Dialogues on Natural Religion 2.4 THE AGE OF REVOLUTION2.4.1 Europe: The Great Powers2.4.1.1 Forming Nation StatesAD 1581 Proclamation of Dutch independence from Spain 1594 Henry of Navarre crowned Henry IV of France 1603 Union of Scottish and English Crowns under the Stuart James I 1611-1614 Rebellion of the French princes 1624 Richelieu admitted to the Council of State 1625 Hugo Grotius publishes De Jure Belli et Pacis [international law] 1635 Founding of the French Academy, which establishes uniform grammar and usage for French language 1636-1637 Peasant revolts in southern and western France 1639 Nu-Pied, or Barefoot, Revolt in France 1640 Revolts of the Catalans, Portuguese, Irish and Neapolitans 1642 Outbreak of civil war in England 1648 Peace of Westphalia; sovereignty granted to the Swiss and Dutch states 1648-1652 Civil war in France 1649 Repression of the Irish by Cromwell 1652 Anglo-Dutch War 1653 Defeat of Brandenburg Estates 1655-1660 Northern War; Brandenburg gains sovereignty of Prussia 1660 Charles II declares the Declaration of Breda 1661 Beginning of the “personal” reign of Louis XIV 1663 Louis XIV occupies the Papal State of Avignon [Comtat Venaissin] 1678 Elector of Brandenburg attempts to suppress Wendish speech 1680-1683 Chambers of Reunion 1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 2.4.1.2 The Age of Louis XIVAD 1636 Corneal present Le Cid 1637 The current publishes the Discourse on Method 1638 Birth of Louis XIV 1642 Death of Richelieu 1643 Death of Louis XIII; Regency of Anne of Austria for Louis XIV; Battle of Rocroi 1648-1652 Civil Wars in France [the Frondes] 1656 Creation of the General Hospital, Paris 1660 Marriage of Louis XIV to Maria Theresa of Spain 1661 Death of Cardinal Mazarin, beginning of the “personal” reign of Louis XIV 1663 Le Nôtre designs the gardens of Versailles 1664 Molière presents Tartruffe; the play is banned 1664 Creation of the Compagnie des Indes 1665 Bernini visits Paris 1667 War of Devolution 1670 Promulgation of a reformed criminal code for France 1670 Treaty of Dover 1670 War with the Dutch; assassination of the De Witt brothers 1674 Invasion of the Franche Comté 1679 First fortress built by Vauban 1679 Bossuet publishes the Politique tirée de l’Ecriture Sainte 1679 La Fontaine publishes Books 7-11 of the Fables 1683 Death of Colbert 1685 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 1688 War of the League of Augsburg; the Glorious Revolution in England; death of Frederick William the Great Elector 1691 Racine presents Athalie 1697 Bayle publishes Didtionnaire historique et critique 1700 Philip V proclaimed king of Spain 1702 Death of William III 1704 Battle of Blenheim 1713 Peace of Utrecht 1715 Death of Louis XIV 2.4.1.3 Europe in the 18th CenturyAD 1709 Battle of Poltava [defeat of the Swedes by the Russians under Peter the Great] 1714 George of Hanover becomes king of England 1720 Collapse of Law’s Mississippi Scheme in France, and English South Sea Bubble 1721 Montesquieu publishes the Persian Letters 1721-1742 Administration of Robert Walpole 1726 Cardinal Fleury becomes prime minister in France 1734 Voltaire publishes Philosophical Letters on the English 1736 John Wesley begins to establish Methodist Societies 1740 Frederick II of Prussia invades Silesia 1741 Empress Maria Theresa rallies Hungarian nobles to fight the Prussians 1745 Battle of Fontenoy 1747 Richardson publishes Clarissa Harlowe 1748 Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle 1750 Death of Johann Sebastian Bach; Voltaire begins his visit at the court of Frederick the Great; Diderot and collaborators publish first volume of the Encyclopédie 1756 Outbreak of the Seven Years’ War 1761 Resignation of William Pitt 1762 Catherine II becomes ruler of Russia; Rousseau publishes the Social Contract 1771 Parliaments abolished in France by Louis XV 1773 Diderot visits Catherine the Great in Russia 1774 Louis XVI becomes king of France and recalls the Parlements 1778 France intervenes in the War of American Independence 1781 Joseph II promulgates the Edict of Tolerance 1783 Russia annexes the Crimea; Beaumarchais presents Marriage of Figaro 2.4.2 Revolution in the Western World2.4.2.1 The American RevolutionAD 1763 Treaty of Paris ending Seven Years’ War; Proclamation of 1763, restricting trans-Appalachian settlement; Patrick Henry’s argument in the Parson’s Cause 1764 Passage of the Sugar Act and Currency Acts 1765 Passage of the Stamp Act; Stamp Act Congress meets in New York and adopts Declaration of Rights and Grievances 1766 Repeal of the Stamp Act accompanied by passage of Declaratory Act 1767 Passage of Townshend Acts; revival of nonimportation agreements; publication of first of John Dickinson’s Farmers’ Letters 1768 Massachusetts House of Representatives adopts Circular Letter 1770 Townshend duties repealed in large part except for duties on tea 1772 Burning of the Gaspee; Committees of Correspondence organized by Samuel Adams 1773 Passage of the Tea Act; Boston Tea Party 1774 Passage of the “Intolerable Acts,” including the Quebec Act; First Continental Congress convenes at Philadelphia, defeats Galloway’s Plan of Union; adopts Declaration and Resolves and Continental Association 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord; Second Continental Congress names Washington commander of the Continental forces; Battle of Bunker Hill 1776 Publication of Common Sense by Thomas Paine; Declaration of Independence; Battles of Long Island and Trenton 1777 Battles of Princeton and Germantown; Burgoyne’s surrender, Saratoga; Congress adopts Articles of Confederation 1778 Franco-American treaties of amity and commerce and of alliance with the United States 1779 Formal entry of Spain into the war against England 1780 Siege of Charleston and fall to the British; treason of Arnold 1781 Ratification of the Articles of confederation; surrender of the British at Yorktown to combined Franco-American forces 1782 Fall of Lord North’s ministry; signing of Preliminary Articles of Peace in Paris 1783 Signing of Definitive Treaty of Peace with Great Britain; British evacuate New York City 2.4.2.2 The French RevolutionAD 1789 Meeting of the Estates General; conversion of Estates General into National Assembly; fall of the Bastille; Decrees Abolishing the Feudal System 1790 Civil Constitution of the Clergy 1791 King forgiven after attempt to flee from France; Legislative Assembly convenes 1792 Beginning of war with Austria and Prussia; manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick; abolition of the Monarchy and establishment of the Republic 1793 Execution of Louis XVI; arrest of the leaders of the Girondins 1793-1794 The Reign of Terror 1794 Elimination of the Hébertists; elimination of the Dantonists; fall of the Robespierrists 1794-1795 The Thermidorian reaction 1795 Constitution establishing the Directory; dissolution of the Convention 1795-1799 The Directory 1706-1797 Italian campaign of Napoleon Bonaparte 1799 Overthrow of the Directory and establishment of the Napoleonic Consulate 2.4.3 Reaction and Rebellion2.4.3.1 The Napoleonic EraAD 1768 French take Corsica 1769 Napoleon Bonaparte born at Ajaccio, Corsica 1784 Napoleon enters the École Militaire 1789 Meeting of the Estates General; beginning of the French Revolution 1790 Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France published 1791-1792 Legislative Assembly 1792-1795 Convention 1793 Execution of Luis XIV; English evacuation of Toulon; Napoleon becomes brigadier general 1794 Fall of Robespierre 1795-1799 Directory 1796 Napoleon assumes command of the army of Italy 1797 Treaty of Campo Formio 1798 Napoleon sails from Toulon to begin Egyptian campaign; Battle of the Nile 1799-1804 Consulate 1800 Battle of Marengo; Battle of Hohenlinden 1801 Treaty of Lunéville; Alexander I becomes czar of Russia; French concordat with papacy 1802 Treaty of Amiens; Napoleon becomes life consul 1803 Bank of France founded 1804 Napoleon proclaimed emperor; Napoleonic Code promulgated 1805 Battle of Trafalgar; Battle of Austerlitz; Treaty of Pressburg 1806 Death of William Pitt; Battle of Jena; Berlin Decree, establishing the “Continental System” 1807 Great Britain abolishes the slave trade; Napoleon forces Ferdinand VII of Spain to abdicate and installs his brother Joseph as king of Spain; Battle of Friedland; Treaty of Tilsit; Milan Decree 1807-1808 J. G. Fichte delivers his Address to the German Nation 1809 Battle of Wagram; Treaty of Schönbrunn 1810 Napoleon marries Marie Louise of Austria 1811-1813 Luddite risings in Great Britain 1812 Napoleonic invasion of Russia 1813 Battle of Leipzig [Battle of the Nations] 1814 Napoleon abdicates; Treaties of Chaumont, establishing the Quadruple Alliance; First Treaty of Paris 1815 The Hundred Days; Conclusion of the Congress of Vienna; abdication of Napoleon; the Holy Alliance; Second Treaty of Paris 1821 Napoleon dies at St. Helena 2.4.3.2 The United States: 1789-1823AD 1786 Annapolis Convention 1787 Philadelphia Convention 1789 George Washington inaugurated 1791 First Bank of the United States established 1795 Jay Treaty ratified 1796 Washington’s Farewell Address 1797 John Adams inaugurated 1798 Alien and Sedition acts; first Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions 1799 Second Kentucky resolution; undeclared naval war with France 1801 Thomas Jefferson inaugurated 1803 Louisiana Purchase 1804 Alexander Hamilton killed 1807 Embargo 1808 African slave trade ends 1809 Nonintercourse Act; James Madison inaugurated 1811 First Bank of the United States expires 1812 War of 1812 1814 Hartford Convention; Treaty of Ghent ends War of 1812 1816 Second Bank of the United States established 1817 James Monroe inaugurated 1820 Missouri Compromise 1823 Monroe Doctrine 2.4.3.3 Liberation Movements in EuropeAD 1814-1815 Congress of Vienna 1820-1821 Revolution in Naples; rising in Piedmont 1821-1830 Greek War of Independence 1823 The Monroe Doctrine proclaimed 1830 Greece recognized by the Powers; Otto of Bavaria king; revolution in Paris; Louis Philippe “king of the French;” rising in Brussels; proclamation of Belgian independence 1830-1831 Belgium recognized by the Powers; Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king 1831 Revolution in Warsaw; risings in central Italy 1819-1844 German Zollverein 1836 Palacký’s History of Bohemia 1837 Rebellion in Upper and Lower Canada 1839 Durham Report on the organization of Canada 1840 Union of Canada 1847-1848 Irish famine; Young Ireland 1848 Communist Manifesto; revolution in Paris; Second French Republic; revolutions in central Europe; Austro-Sardinian War; Piedmontese Statuto; Frankfurt Parliament; counterrevolution in France and in central Europe; Louis Napoleon elected President of the Republic 1849 Roman Republic; Austro-Sardinian War; Frankfurt constitution; Russian intervention in Hungary; the French in Rome 1867 British North America Act creates Dominion of Canada 2.4.3.4 Liberation Movements in Latin AmericaAD 1804 Haiti declares its independence 1808 Portuguese Court flees to Brazil 1810 Autonomous governments set up in Argentina, Chile, Colombia, and Venezuela 1815 Brazil declared a kingdom 1816 Bolívar issues a decree against slavery 1817 José de San Martin crosses the Andes to defeat Spaniards at Battle of Chacabuco 1821 Victory of Bolívar at Carabobo, last major engagement of war in Venezuela; Mexico wins its independence, followed by short-lived [1822-1823] rule of Emperor Agustín Iturbide 1822 Brazilian Empire declared independent under Pedro I 1824 Battle of Ayacucho, last major engagement in South America 1826 Congress of Panama, convoked by Bolívar 1830 Death of Bolívar 2.4.3.5 The Near EastAD 1774 Russo-Ottoman Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji 1792-1793 Nizam-I Jedid; New Regulations reorganizing Ottoman military and civilian institutions 1794 Founding of Qajar dynasty in Iran 1804 Servian revolt against Ottoman rule 1804-1812 Russo-Persian war, ended by Treaty of Bulistan in 1813 1805 Muhammad Ali becomes governor of Egypt and founds dynasty 1807-1808 Revolt of Janissaries, murder of Selim III, succeeded by Mahmud II as Ottoman Sultan 1811 Muhammad Ali massacres Mamelukes and consolidates his rule 1820-1822 Muhammad Ali conquers Sudan 1821-1830 Greek war of independence 1825-1828 Russo-Persian war, ended by Treaty of Turkmanchai, 1828 1826 Mahmud II massacres Janissaries and reorganizes Ottoman army 1832-1833 & 1839-1840 Ottoman-Egyptian wars 1837-1838 Persian-Afghan war 1839 Hatt-I Sherif of Gulhane: reforms guaranteeing liberties of Ottoman subjects; British occupy Aden 1854-1856 Crimean War 1856 Hatt-I Humayun: extend rights grant by Hatt-I Sherif; Anglo-Persian war 1860-1861 Communal conflicts in Lebanon and Syria 1868-1876 Ottoman Civil Code 1869 Opening of Suez Canal 1875-1878 Balkan and Russo-Turkish wars 1876 Proclamation of Ottoman Constitution, accession of Abdul Hamid II 1881-1882 Arab revolt in Egypt, followed by British occupation 1883-1885 Mahdist revolt in Sudan ending Egyptian rule 1896 Assassination of Nasirudding Shah of Iran 1896-1898 Anglo-Egyptian reconquest of Sudan 1901 Oil concession granted to W. K. D’Arcy in Iran 1905-1909 Constitutional Revolution in Iran 1908-1909 Young Turk revolt restores constitution in Turkey; deposition of Abdul Hamid in 1909 1912-1913 Balkan wars 1914 Turkey enters war on side of Central Powers; Egypt becomes British protectorate 1916 Arab revolt against Turkey 1917 Balfour Declaration, promising Jewish national home in Palestine 1912-1922 Turkish war of liberation against Greek and Allied forces 1923 Treaty of Lausanne between Turkey and Allied Powers; deposition of sultan; Turkey proclaimed republic 1920 League of Nations assigns mandates to France over Lebanon and Syria and to Britain over Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan 1921-1925 Riza Khan establishes control over Iran, deposes Ahmed Shah and founds Pahlavi dynasty 1922 Britain declares Egypt independent 1924 Ibn Saud conquers Hijaz and establishes rule over most of Arabian Peninsula 1932 Iraq granted independence 2.4.4 The Industrial Revolution2.4.4.1 The Industrial Revolution in EnglandAD 1694 Founding of the Bank of England 1733 James Kay invents the flying shuttle 1769 Josiah Wedgwood opens pottery factory at Etruria, near Stoke-upon-Trent; James Watt patents the steam engine after years of experimentation; Richard Arkwright invents the water-powered spinning frame 1770 James Hargreaves patents the spinning Jenny 1776 Adam Smith publishes The Wealth of Nations, the classic of classical political economy 1784 James Watt patents a locomotive, two years after Oliver Evans patents a similar device 1785 Edmund Cartwright patents the power loom 1793 Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin 1798 Eli Whitney builds a factory for the mass production of firearms near New Haven 1811 Pittsburgh’s first rolling mill opens 1821 Great Britain adopts the gold standard 1822 First textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts 1824-1825 Repeal of the Combination Acts in Great Britain, permitting trade unions to burgeon 1829 George Stephenson perfects the steam locomotive 1830 Railroad is put to first serious uses in the United States 1846 Great Britain repeals the Corn Laws 1849 Great Britain repeals the Navigation Acts 1858 Henry Bessemer (later Sir Henry) builds Bessemer Steel Works at Sheffield, using a new process that makes large-scale production possible 1869 Transcontinental railway across the United States is completed 2.4.4.2 The Spread of IndustrializationAD 1793 Alexander Hamilton, “Report on Manufactures” 1859 Value added by manufacturing exceeds value of agricultural products sold 1901 US Steel Corporation, first business capitalized at more than a billion dollars, formed 2.4.4.3 A World EconomyAD 1807 Robert Fulton sails from New York to Albany in steamboat Clermont 1816 Regular transatlantic service, in sailing ships, between Liverpool and New York 1819 Savannah crosses Atlantic, mostly under steam 1821 Adoption of gold standard in England 1825 Opening of Stockton and Darlington railroad, in England 1844 Electric telegraph opens between Washington and Baltimore 1846 Repeal of Corn Laws 1866 Laying of first transatlantic cable 1869 Opening of the Union and Pacific’s transcontinental railway; opening of Suez Canal 1876 Invention of telephone 1884 Invention of compound turbine in steam navigation 1887 Daimler’s internal combustion automobile 1901 Marconi’s first translantic radiotelegraphy message 1902 First transpacific cable 1903 Completion of trans-Siberian railway; airplane flight by Wright Brothers 1909 First cross-Channel flight by Louis Blériot 1914 Opening of Panama Canal 1919 First transatlantic flight by John Alcock and Arthur Brown 1924 First flight around the world by United States Army planes 1936 First television broadcast 2.4.5 New Forces, New Ideas2.4.5.1 Romanticism and AfterAD 1761-1762 Rousseau’s Émile and Nouvelle Héloϊse 1767-1769 Lessing’s Hamburgishce Dramaturgie 1774 Goethe’s Sorrows of Young Werther 1790 Goethe’s Faust: A fragment 1796 Erasmus Darwin’s Zoonomia (evolutionary theory) 1798 Wordsworth’s and Coleridge’s Lyrical Ballads 1803 Death of Herder; birth of Berlioz 1804 Beethoven’s Eroica Symphony 1807 Hegel’s Phenomenology of Mind 1814 George Stephenson’s first locomotive 1820-1830 Rediscovery of Diderot’s Rameau’s Nephew, The Memoirs of Benvenuto Cellini, the poems of François Villon, and the philosophy of Spinoza 1822 Stendhal’s Racine et Shakespeare 1824 Death of Byron in Greece; Delacroix’s first modern painting 1827 Victor Hugo’s Preface to his play Cromwell; death of Beethoven 1830 Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique; Revolution in Paris, Belgium, Italy, and the German Rhineland 1830-1842 Comte’s Positivist philosophy 1833-1839 Invention of photography 1835 David Strauss’s Life of Jesus; Tocqueville’s Democracy in America 1837 Pugin’s Contrasts; deaths of Leopardi and Pushkin 1839 Turner’s painting The Fighting Téméraire 1845 Alexander von Humboldt’s Cosmos 1848 Revolutions on the Continent; Chartism threatening in England 1850 Death of Wordsworth 2.4.5.2 From Liberalism to DemocracyAD 1815 Waterloo; Peace by Congress of Vienna 1819 Carlsbad Decrees against liberal youth and intellectuals 1829-1830 The Carbonari revolutionists in France and Italy 1821 Death of Napoleon 1822-1823 Congress of Verona and Spanish revolution put down by the French 1823 Monroe Doctrine 1824 Death of Byron at Missolonghi 1828 Jacksonian democracy in power in the United States 1829 The Greek Revolution succeeds and is ratified by the powers 1830 Revolutions in France, Belgium, the Rhineland, Italy, and Brazil 1832 The English Reform Bill passed after a near-revolution 1831-1834 Revolutions in Poland, Spain, and Italy 1840 Napoleon’s ashes brought to Paris 1840-1848 Socialism: Louis Blanc; Chartism and Parliamentary rule 1848 Revolutions in France, Germany, Austria, and Italy 1851 The Great Exhibition in London 1852 The Second French Empire: democracy, the welfare state, and dictatorship 2.4.5.3 The Rise of SocialismAD 1795-1796 Babeuf leads the proto-communist “Conspiracy of Equals” in France 1813 Richard Owens publishes A New View of Society 1817 Ricardo’s Principle’s of Political Economy and Taxation published, the definitive statement of classical political economy 1818 Karl Marx born at Trier in the Rhineland 1832 Death of G. W. F. Hegel 1840 Proudhon publishes What is Property? 1844 Marx meets Friedrich Engels 1845 Engels publishes The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 1848 Marx and Engels publish the Communist Manifesto; European revolutions 1849 Marx settles in England 1864 Ferdinand Lassalle killed in a duel; International Working Men’s Association (First International) founded in London 1867 Marx publishes first volume of Capital 1871 Commune established in Paris following French defeat in Franco-Prussian War 1872-1876 Torn by internal divisions, the First International gradually disintegrates 1875 Social Democratic Party founded in Germany 1883 Fabian Society founded in London; Marx dies 1889 Second International founded; Eduard Bernstein proposes his “revisionist” departure from orthodox Marxism 1893 Independent Labour party founded in England 1900 Labour Representation Committee founded in England, leading to formation of the Labour party in 1906 1905 Russian Revolution 1908 Georges Sorel publishes Reflections on Violence 1914 Divisions in socialist parties on the question of the war result in general support of the war and collapse of Second International 2.4.5.4 The Antislavery Impulse in AmericaAD 1777 Vermont ends slavery 1804 New Jersey ends slavery 1808 Slave trade ends 1817 American Colonization Society established 1820 Missouri Compromise 1822 Denmark Vessey Conspiracy 1829 David Walker Appeal published 1831 The Liberator begins publication; Nat Turner rebellion 1833 Britain ends slavery 1836 Gag Rule 1840 Liberty party formed 1843 Repeal of Gag Rule 1845 Texas annexed; Methodist Church splits along sectional lines 1846 Mexican War; Wilmot Proviso 1848 Mexican War ends; Free Soil party organized 1850 Compromise of 1850 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act 1857 Dred Scott decision 1860 Abraham Lincoln elected; South Carolina secedes 1861 Civil War begins 1863 Emancipation Proclamation 1865 End of Civil War, 13th Amendment ratified 2.4.5.5 Unification MovementsAD 1792-1815 The French Revolution and Napoleon; political rearrangements in central Europe; wars of liberation 1815 Settlement of Vienna 1815-1848 Italian Risorgimento; Metternichian system 1819-1844 German Zollverein 1846 Pius IX pope 1848 Piedmontese Statuto 1848-1849 Failure of revolutions in central Europe; Austro-Sardinian wars 1852 The Danish Duchies; London Protocol; Cavour prime minister of Sardinia 1854-1856 Congress of Paris 1858 Plombières agreement between Napoleon III and Cavour; Franco-Sardinian alliance 1859 War between Austria and France and Sardinia; Armistice of Villafranca 1860 Collapse of the Italian Structure; Garibaldi’s expedition 1860-1861 Insurrection in Syria; French expedition; Statute of the Lebanon 1861 Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy 1862 Bismarck minister president of Prussia; union of Moldavia and Wallachia under Alexander Cuza 1863 Polish insurrection; Alvensleben Convention 1864 War of Prussia and Austria against Denmark; cession of Schleswig and Holstein by Denmark 1865 Gastein Convention between Austria and Prussia; Biarritz meeting of Napoleon III and Bismarck 1866 Austro-Prussian war; Treaty of Prague; Italy acquires Venetia 1866-1868 Cretan revolt 1867 North German Confederation; Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich 1868-1870 Hohenzollern candidacy to the Spanish throne 1870-1871 Ems dispatch; Franco-Prussian war 1871 Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles; Treaty of Frankfurt; annexation of Alsace-Lorraine 2.5 THE MODERN WORLD2.5.1 Toward Disintegration2.5.1.1 Imperialism in AfricaAD 1805 Accession of Muhammad Ali, pasha of Egypt 1820 Egyptian conquest of Sudan 1830 French occupation of Algiers 1833 Abolition of slavery in the British Empire 1836-1837 Great Trek in South Africa 1859-1860 Spanish-Moroccan war 1861 British annexation of Lagos 1869 Opening of Suez Canal 1872 Internal self-government in South Africa 1873-1874 Anglo-Ashanti war 1876 Founding of International African Association; European control assumed over Egyptian finances 1882 British occupation of Egypt; Makoko Treaty (Congo) 1884-1885 Declaration of German African protectorates; Berlin West Africa Conference 1885 Founding of the Congo Independent State; fall of Khartoum and death of General Charles Gordon 1886 Discovery of Gold on the Witwatersrand; Anglo-German East African boundary agreement; grant of charter to Royal Niger Company 1889 Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of Wichale; grant of charter to British South Africa Company 1890 Anglo-German African boundaries agreement; British protectorate over Zanzibar and Pemba; “Pioneer Column” to Rhodesia 1893 ff. French conquest of Dahomey 1894 British protectorate over Uganda; French occupation of Timbuktu 1894 ff. French conquest of Madagascar 1895 Jameson raid in the Transvaal; British protectorate over East Africa (Kenya) 1896 Battle of Aduwa; British occupation of Ashanti 1896-1897 Revolts in Matabeleland and Mashonaland 1898 French defeat of Samori Tourè; Battle of Omdurman and “Fashoda Incident” 1899-1902 South African (Boer) war 1900-1903 British occupation of Northern Nigeria 1905-1907 Maji-Maji Rising (German East Africa) 1912 French Protectorate over Morocco 2.5.1.2 American ImperialismAD 1867 Alaska purchased 1887 Pearl Harbor acquired 1898 U.S.S. Maine destroyed; McKinley’s war message; Battle of Manila Bay; Battles of El Caney and San Juan Hill; Spanish fleet destroyed; Hawaii annexed; Treaty of Paris (ratified 1899), ending war with Spain; Puerto Rico, Guam and Philippine Islands acquired 1902 End of Philippine insurrection 1904 Panama Canal Zone acquired on lease 1917 Danish West Indies purchased (renamed Virgin Islands) 2.5.1.3 China Under the Impact of the WestAD 1839-1842 Opium War 1850-1873 Taiping and other rebellions 1860’s-1870’s Self-Strengthening movement 1894-1895 First Sino-Japanese War 1898 Hundred Days of Reform, under K’ang Yu-Wei 1900 Boxer Rebellion 1910 Annexation of Korea by Japan 1911 Revolution of 1911 2.5.1.4 India Under British RuleAD 1757 Battle of Plassey; sack of Delhi by Afghans 1761 Marathas defeated at Panipat by Afghans and Mughals 1765 Grant of diwani to East India Company by Mughal Emperor 1784 Pitt’s India Act 1786-1793 Lord Cornwallis governor general 1792 Ranjit Singh comes to power 1793 Permanent settlement in Bengal 1798-1805 Lord Wellesley governor general 1799 Defeat of Tippu Sultan of Mysore 1817-1819 Final war against Marathas 1828-1835 Lord William Bentinck governor general 1835 Resolution on use of English for higher education 1839 Death of Ranjit Singh 1839-1842 First Afghan War 1843 Annexation of Sindh 1849 Annexation of Punjab 1853 First railway line opened 1857-1858 Rebellions and army mutinies 1858 Power transferred from East India Company to Crown 1880-1884 Lord Ripon governor general 1885 Organization of Indian National Congress 1892 India Councils Act 1899-1905 Lord Curzon governor general 2.5.1.5 Darwin and FreudAD 1796 T. R. Malthus publishes An Essay on the Principles of Population 1801 Lamarck publishes Système des animaux sans vertèbres 1809 Charles Darwin is born 1820 Herbert Spencer is born 1830-1833 Charles Lyell publishes Principles of Geology 1848 Darwin’s theories are fully developed in unpublished papers 1856 Sigmund Freud is born 1859 Darwin publishes The Origin of the Species 1862 Spencer publishes First Principles 1871 Darwin publishes Descent of Man 1882 Darwin dies 1897 Freud discovers essential principles of psychoanalysis; undertakes his self-analysis 1899 Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams 1905 Freud publishes Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality 1909 Freud, in the company of Jung, visits the United States to lecture at Clark University 1910 Founding of the International Psychoanalytical Society; Jung president 1911-1913 Falling out of Freud with Jung and Adler, mainly on the issue of infantile sexuality 1923 ff. Freud publishes The Ego and the Id; period of the last works, including The Future of an Illusion, and Civilization and Its Discontents 1939 Freud dies 2.5.1.6 The Great Powers to the Verge of WarAD 1867 Second Reform Act in Great Britain 1871 Proclamation of William I as Emperor of Germany; Russia denounces the Black Sea clauses of the Treaty of Paris (1856) 1871-1875 Gradual emergence of Third Republic in France 1873 Onset of agricultural depression in western Europe 1876 “Bulgarian atrocities” committed by Turks in suppressing a revolt 1877 Russo-Turk war begins 1878 Treaty of San Stefano; Congress of Berlin 1879 Alliance of Germany and Austria 1881 Czar Alexander II assassinated 1882 Germany, Austria, and Italy form Triple Alliance; British invade and occupy Egypt 1884 Third Reform Act in Great Britain 1884-1885 Berlin Conference (On Africa) 1886 Introduction of First Home Rule Bill in British Parliament; its defeat followed by splitting of Liberal party 1887 Reinsurance Treaty between Germany and Russia 1888 Death of William I; accession of Frederick III; death of Frederick III; accession of William III 1890 Bismarck dismissed 1893-1894 Franco-Russian Alliance 1898 Fashoda Crisis; first Germany Navy Law begins naval race with Great Britain 1899 First Hague Peace Conference; Boer War between Great Britain and Transvaal begins 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance; Treaty of Vereeniging ends Boer War 1904 Anglo-French Entente concluded 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War 1905 First Moroccan Crisis 1905-1906 Russian Revolution 1906 Algeciras Conference 1907 Second Hague Peace Conference; conclusion of Anglo-Russian Entente 1908 Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina 1911 Second Moroccan Crisis 1912-1913 First Balkan War 1913 Second Balkan War 1914 Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand at Sarajevo; Austrian ultimatum to Serbia; Russian mobilization; German and French mobilization; Germany declares war on Russia; Germany declares war on France; following German invasion of Belgium, Great Britain declares war on Germany 1915 Italy enters the war on the Allied side 2.5.2 The Great War: 1914–19452.5.2.1 World War IAD 1914 German declaration of war on Russia; German declaration of war on France; British declaration of war on Germany; Battle of the Marne 1915 Lusitania sunk by German submarine, 139 Americans lost; Italy enters war on Allied side; Dardanelles operation 1916 British Parliament passes conscription; Battle of Verdun; Hindenburg appointed chief of staff with Ludendorff as quartermaster general; Lloyd George becomes prime minister of Great Britain 1917 Germany notifies U.S. that unrestricted submarine warfare will begin the next day; provisional Russian government established under Prince Lvov; Nicholas II abdicates; U.S. declares war on Germany; mutinies in French army; beginning of ill-fated Brusilov offensive; German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg forced to resign and succeeded by Dr. Michaelis; real power in hands of Hindenburg and Ludendorff; beginning of Italian disaster at Caporetto; Bolshevik revolution; Clemenceau become prime minister in France; Bolshevik Russia concludes armistice with Central Powers 1918 Russia signs Brest Litovsk Treaty, ceding Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, etc.; Germans begin great spring offensive in the west; Foch named commander in chief of Allied forces in France; first major, successful American engagement at Château-Thierry; Second Battle of the Marne; successful Allied counteroffensive in the west; Bulgaria receives armistice; new German government of Prince Max von Baden asks President Wilson for armistice based on Fourteen Points; armistice with Turkey; Allies sign armistice with Austria-Hungary; Germany accepts armistice and hostilities end everywhere 2.5.2.2 The Russian Revolution and the Stalin EraAD 1904 Outbreak of Russo-Japanese War 1905 “Bloody Sunday,” beginning of 1905 Revolution 1914 Outbreak of First World War 1916 Murder of Rasputin 1917 March 8-15, “February Revolution”; April 16, Lenin returns to Russia; July 16-17, “July Days”; Sept. 9-14, Kornilov Affair; Nov. 7, Bolshevik seizure of power: “October Revolution” 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany 1918-1920 Civil war and foreign intervention 1921 Kronstadt mutiny; beginning of New Economic Policy 1922 Stalin named Secretary General of Communist Party 1924 Death of Lenin 1926 Zinoviev, Trotsky, and Kamenev removed from Politburo 1928 Adoption of First Five-Year Plan 1929 Bukharin ousted from Politburo 1934 Assassination of Kirov; beginning of Great Purges 1936 Stalin Constitution approved 1939 Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact 1941 German invasion of U.S.S.R. 1953 Death of Stalin 2.5.2.3 The United States: Prosperity and DepressionAD 1918 End of World War I 1919 U.S. Senate rejects League of Nations treaty; Red Scare; 18th Amendment (Prohibition) ratified 1920 19th Amendment (Women’s Suffrage) ratified; Republicans returned to power; census reveals U.S. predominantly urban 1922 Nine-Power Treaty 1928 The Big Bull Market; Kellogg-Briand Pact 1929 Wall Street Crash 1932 Election of Franklin D. Roosevelt: Democrats new majority party 1933 Bank crisis; beginning of New Deal; the Hundred Days; recognition of U.S.S.R. 1935 Second Hundred Days; Social Security Act and welfare state; first neutrality legislation 1937 Sitdown strikes; Constitutional crisis; recession 1938 End of New Deal reforms 1939 Outbreak of World War II in Europe 2.5.2.4 Modern ChinaAD 1912-1916 Yüan Shih-k’ai first president of the Republic of China 1919 May Fourth Movement 1924 Reorganization of the Kuomintang 1926-1928 Northern Expedition, and reunification of China under the Kuomintang 1934-1935 Chinese Communists’ Long March 1937-1945 Second Sino-Japanese War 2.5.2.5 Modernizing JapanAD 1868 New imperial government established at Edo, renamed Tokyo 1871-1876 Basic policies of centralization and liquidation of caste privilege 1873 Universal military conscription; dispute over Korean invasion resolved in favor of peace faction 1877 Satsuma Rebellion 1881 Date set on constitution and parliament 1889 Promulgation of Meiji Constitution 1890 First session of Imperial Diet 1894-1895 First Sino-Japanese War 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War 1915 Japanese attempt to assert political and military dominance over China (Twenty-one Demands) 1918 Cabinet of Prime Minister Hara, first to be headed by a member of the House of Representatives 1930 World depression reaches Japan 1931 Mukden Incident, leading to Japanese conquest of Manchuria 1932 Abandonment of party cabinets 1936 Abortive “February Mutiny” 1937 Incident at Marco Polo Bridge brings all-out war with China 1941-1945 Japan at war with Western Allies 2.5.2.6 Nationalism in IndiaAD 1905 Partition of Bengal 1906 Founding of Muslim League 1909 Morley-Minto Reforms 1912 Delhi made capital of India 1917 Announcement by British Parliament of responsible government as Goal for India 1919 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms 1920 M. K. Gandhi becomes leader of Indian National Congress 1921 First Noncooperation Movement 1927 Simon Commission 1930 Civil Disobedience Movement 1935 Government of India Act 1937 Inauguration of provincial autonomy 1939 Congress ministries resign on war issue 1942 Last civil disobedience movement; August uprisings 1946 Negotiations for transfer of power 1947 Lord Mountbatten governor general; partition and independence 2.5.2.7 Europe Between the WarsAD 1919 Treaty of Versailles signed; Treaty of St. Germain with Austria; Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria 1920 U.S. Senate rejects League of Nations; Treaty of Trianon with Hungary; Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey 1921 New Economic Policy inaugurated in U.S.S.R. 1922 Mussolini’s March on Rome; Fascists take power 1922-1923 Washington Naval Conference 1923 French occupation of the Ruhr; Treaty of Lausanne with Turkey; Adolf Hitler stages Beer Hall Putsch in Munich 1924 Lenin’s death 1925 Locarno Treaties 1926 General Strike in Great Britain; Stalin establishes control in U.S.S.R.; Imperial Conference defines nature of British Commonwealth Nations 1928 Pact of Paris, Kellogg-Briand Pact, “outlawing war” 1929 Lateran Treaties between Italy and the papacy; stock market crashes in New York, ushering in world-wide depression 1930 Reichstag election marks emergence of Nazis as major party 1931 Incident at Mukden provides pretext for beginning of Japanese occupation of Manchuria; defeat of Labour party in general elections followed by formation of a National Government (a coalition) in Great Britain 1932 Japanese occupation of Shanghai; Reichstag elections, from which Nazis emerge as largest party but without a majority 1934 Purge of Nazi party 1935 Italy invades Ethiopia 1936 Germany reoccupies the Rhineland; Spanish Civil War begins 1938 Germany takes over Austria; Munich Conference 1939 End of Civil War in Spain; nonaggression pact between Russia and Germany; Germany invades Poland; Great Britain and France declare war on Germany 2.5.2.8 World War IIAD 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact; Germany invades Poland; Britain and France declare war on Germany; partition of Poland between Germany and Russia 1939-1940 The “phony” war; first Russo-Finnish War 1940 Denmark and Norway overrun by Germany; Germany launches attack in the West; Churchill succeeds Chamberlain as prime minister; Battle and collapse of France; Dunkirk evacuation; French armistice; Vichy regime; De Gaulle launches Free French movement; Italy enters the war; Battle of Britain; destroyer-bases deal between U.S. and Britain; FDR elected for third term 1941 Central and eastern European arrangements; Lend-Lease legislation; Yugoslavia and Greece overrun; Hitler attacks Russia; Atlantic Charter; Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor 1941-1942 Germans reach Caucasus; Japanese spread over Southeast Asia, Indonesia and the Pacific 1942 Battle of the Coral Sea; Battle of Stalingrad; El Alamein; all France occupied; North African landings 1943 Russia withdraws recognition from Polish government in exile; French Committee of National Liberation in Algiers; invasion of Sicily; Italian armistice; collapse of Fascist regime, meeting of Allied foreign ministers in Moscow; Teheran conference of the Big Three; Cairo declaration re China 1944 Normandy landings; FCNL becomes provisional French government; Rome entered; Warsaw rising; liberation of Paris; Battle of the Bulge 1945 Yalta Conference of the Big Three; death of FDR; Harry S. Truman president; Germany surrenders; Hitler commits suicide; Potsdam Conference; first atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima; Japan surrenders 2.5.3 The Brooding Present2.5.3.1 Europe Since World War IIAD 1945 Surrender of Germany; San Francisco Conference; The United Nations; Potsdam Conference; Labour in office in Britain; surrender of Japan 1946 Fourth French Republic; Italy becomes a republic; Churchill’s “iron curtain” speech in Fulton, Missouri; De Gaulle “withdraws” 1947 Communists out of government in France and in Italy; Truman Doctrine; beginning of the Cold War; India and Pakistan emerge to independence; UN establishes state of Israel 1948 Communist coup in Prague; Marshall Plan and OEEC; Yugoslavia-Soviet break 1948-1949 The Berlin Blockade 1949 Signature of NATO Treaty; emergence of the West German Federal Republic; the German Democratic Republic 1950 The Korean War; Indonesian independence 1952 Elizabeth II Queen of the United Kingdom 1953 Death of Stalin; Eisenhower President of the U.S.; East Berlin rising; ECSC launched 1954 Geneva conference and agreement re French Indochina; EDC proposal defeated in French parliament 1955 Bandung meeting; Treaty of Peace with Austria; Warsaw Pact; emergence of Nikita Khrushchev in control 1956 Twentieth Party Congress of U.S.S.R.; independence of Tunisia and Morocco; Hungarian rising crushed by Soviet Intervention; Israeli attack on Egypt; Anglo-French intervention at Suez 1957 Sputnik 1958 Treaty of Rome launches the Common Market (EEC); De Gaulle called back to power; the Fifth French Republic; the Eisenhower Doctrine re the Middle East 1960 Abortive summit meeting in Paris; independence of the Belgian Congo; independence of French Black Africa; beginning of Sino-Soviet conflict 1962 Independence of Algeria; Cuban missile crisis 1963 France vetoes British application to Common Market 1964 Ouster of Khrushchev 1967 The Six-Day war between Israel and the Arab countries 1968 Student agitation strikes in France; Warsaw pact countries occupy Czechoslovakia 1969 De Gaulle quits office; Pompidou president; American moon landing 1970-1971 Issue of Britain’s adherence to the Common Market; Sino-American relations; problems of the American and world economies 2.5.3.2 The Cold WarAD 1939 German-Soviet nonaggression treaty 1941 Germany invades Soviet Union; Pearl Harbor 1943 Discovery of Katyn massacre; U.S.S.R. rupture with Polish government in exile; Teheran Conference 1944 Normandy landing; pro-Soviet Polish National Committee created; Warsaw uprising; Churchill-Stalin agreement in Moscow; civil conflict in Greece 1945 Yalta Conference; pro-Soviet Groza formed in Rumania; Potsdam Conference; first atomic bomb dropped, on Hiroshima; Moscow Conference 1946 Churchill’s “iron curtain” speech at Fulton, Missouri 1947 Announcement of “Truman Doctrine” for aid to Greece and Turkey; Marshall Plan launched; creation of Cominform 1948 Communist coup in Prague; Tito’s Yugoslavia expelled from Cominform; beginning of Berlin blockade 1949 North Atlantic Treaty signed; Chinese People’s Republic proclaimed 1950 North Korean invasion of South Korea; Atlantic Council agrees on measures of West German rearmament 1953 Death of Stalin 1956 Khrushchev denunciation of Stalin; Gomulka becomes First Secretary of Polish Communist party; abortive Hungarian uprising 1957 Khrushchev defeats “anti-Party group”; launching of first Soviet Sputnik 1959 Fidel Castro victory in Cuba 1960 Revelation of Sino-Soviet rift 1961 Abortive Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba; erection of Berlin wall 1962 Cuban missile crisis 2.5.3.3 Latin America in FermentAD 1898 Spanish-American War 1910 Revolution begins in Mexico 1912 Universal compulsory male suffrage law passed in Argentina 1916 First popularly elected president in Argentina, Hipólito Iriyogen 1918 Student movement begins in Córdoba, Argentina 1930 Getúlio Vargas begins 15-year rule in Brazil; the depression comes to Latin America 1934-1940 Làzaro Càrdenas stabilizes Mexico, implements the revolution, expropriates foreign oil properties (1938) 1943-1955 Perón dominates Argentina 1952 Bolivian Revolution 1959 Fidel Castro triumphs in Cuba 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba fails; Trujillo assassinated, ending 31-year dictatorship in the Dominican Republic 1962 Missile crisis between Russia and the United States 1965 First Pan-American Assembly on Population meets in Colombia; President Lyndon Johnson sends Marines to the Dominican Republic 1970 Salvador Allende elected president of Chile 2.5.3.4 The Middle East Since 1940AD 1941 Anglo-Soviet troops occupy Iran; Riza Shah deposed and replaced by son 1945 Formation of Arab League 1945-1947 Azerbaijan crisis 1946 French troops evacuate Lebanon and Syria; Britain recognizes independence of Transjordan (Jordan) 1947 Truman Doctrine promising support to Greece and Turkey; United Nations partition of Palestine, evacuation of British Troops 1948 Proclamation of State of Israel 1948-1949 Arab-Israeli war 1949 First of seri3s of military revolts in Syria 1951 Nationalization of oil industry in Iran 1952 Military revolution in Egypt overthrows monarchy and establishes republic 1954 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty providing for evacuation of British troops 1955 Baghdad Pact 1958 Military revolt in Iraq ends monarchy 1962 Civil War in Yemen, overthrow of monarchy 1967 Arab-Israeli war 1968 Independence of Southern Yemen 2.5.3.5 Africa since 1945AD 1944 Brazzavillle Conference of French Union 1945 Fifth Pan-African Conference, Manchester 1948 Nationalist Party comes to power in Union of South Africa 1952 Overthrow of King Farouk in Egypt; Mau Mau emergency proclaimed in Kenya 1954 Algerian war of independence begins 1955 Bandung conference 1956 Independence of Sudan, Tunisia, Morocco 1957 Independence of Ghana 1958 Referendum in French Africa; conference of Independent African States, Accra; All-African People’s Conference, Accra; independence of Guinea 1960 Year of Africa (independence of 17 states); Congo crisis breaks out; Katanga secession 1961 Creation of Casablanca and Monrovia groups; Angola rebellion begins (first in Portuguese Africa) 1962 Algeria gains independence; end of Katanga secession 1963 Creation of Organization of African Unity 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence by Southern Rhodesia 1966 Coups in Nigeria (death of Balewa) and Ghana (fall of Nkrumah) 1967 Secession of Biafra 1970 End of Biafra secession 2.5.3.6 The New AsiaAD 1945 Dropping of first atomic bombs; Soviet entry in the Pacific war; Japanese surrender and end of World War II in Asia 1946 Unsuccessful U.S. attempt to mediate Nationalist-Communist conflict in China and renewal of Chinese civil war; independence of the Philippines 1947 Independence of India and Pakistan 1948 Independence of Burma; outbreak of Communist-led rebellions in Burma and several other Southeast Asian countries; assassination of Gandhi in India 1949 Communist victory over Chiang Kai-shek’s regime in China and establishment of the People’s Republic of China under Mao Tse-tung; independence of Indonesia under Sukarno 1950 Sino-Soviet alliance; outbreak of Korean War 1951 Japanese peace treaty and U.S.-Japan security treaty; start of Korean peace negotiations at Panmunjom; India’s first Five-Year Plan 1953 Truce in Korea; China’s first Five-Year Plan; election of Magsaysay as president of the Philippines 1954 Geneva Conference and French withdrawal from Indochina; establishment of SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) 1955 Bandung conference of Asian-African leaders; start of U.S.-China Geneva-Warsaw talks 1957 Malayan independence; Sukarno’s introduction of “guided democracy” in Indonesia; revolt in Sumatra and outer islands of Indonesia 1958 “Great Leap Forward” in China; “offshore islands” crisis on China coast 1959 Tibetan revolt; Chinese-Indian border incidents 1960 Open debate in Sino-Soviet relations; renewed conflict in Vietnam; revision of the U.S.-Japan security treaty 1962 China-India border conflict; Geneva Conference on Laos; Ne Win coup d’état in Burma 1964 China’s first nuclear test; death of Nehru; Indonesian “confrontation” with Malaysia 1965 Attempted communist coup in Indonesia, resulting in military control under Suharto; major U.S. intervention in Vietnam; India-Pakistan conflict over Kashmir 1966 “Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution” and purge of Liu Shao-chi in China; opening of Asian Development Bank; founding of ASPAC (Asian and Pacific Council) 1967 Founding of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) 1968 Cessation of U.S. bombing of North Vietnam and start of Paris negotiations on Vietnam 1969 Sino-Soviet border conflict; Nixon’s “Guam Doctrine”; U.S. agreement with Sato government on return of Okinawa to Japan; death of Ho Chi Minh in North Vietnam; growth of Japanese gross national product makes Japan third-largest economy in the world 1970 Overthrow of Sihanouk and U.S. military intervention in Cambodia 1971 Announcement of planned Nixon trip to Peking 2.5.3.7 The United States Since Word War IIAD 1946 Employment Act creates Council of Economic Advisors 1947 Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan 1949 North Atlantic Treaty Organization approved 1950 Outbreak of Korean War 1950-1960 Sale of television sets averages over 7 million a year by 1960, 88 per cent of all households have television 1954 Supreme Court declares racially segregated schools unconstitutional 1956 Martin Luther King, Jr., organizes Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott 1958 First commercial jet airplanes in service 1962 Cuban missile crisis 1963 Assassination of President John F. Kennedy 1964 Student riots at the University of California, Berkeley 1965 President Lyndon B. Johnson “escalates” the Vietnamese War; Education Act provides first comprehensive aid to education; race riot in Watts district, Los Angeles, California 1968 Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. 1969 Astronauts land on the moon 2.5.3.8 The State of Culture TodayAD 1870 Education Acts passed in most countries of western Europe: free compulsory education; beginnings of industrial literacy 1871 End of Franco-Prussian War; beginning of armed diplomacy leading to 1914 1889 Paris World’s Fair: the Eiffel Tower and the triumph of machinery; London dockers’ strike 1890-1905 The new Romanticism: Symbolism; Art for Art’s sake; Decadence; Post-impressionism 1890-1910 Invention or discovery of: the automobile; serum therapy; Diesel engine; Kodak roll film; motion pictures; heavier-than-air flying machine; finger-printing; striptease; tuberculin; appendectomy; plastic surgery; color photography; wireless; artificial diamonds; spinal anesthesia; psychoanalysis; Mendelian genetics; histidine; radioactivity; vacuum tube; artificial insemination; organ transplant; quantum theory; relativity; Salvarsan for syphilis; anaphylaxis; artificial materials from resins and cellulose 1894-1906 The Dreyfus Affair; the intellectuals a new political force 1895-1917 The emergence of Marxism and Syndicalism; Reflections on Violence (1908); the suffragettes; the coming “century of the child” 1900 “The Yellow Peril”; Western envoys besieged in Peking and relieved by a European army under a German general 1900-1911 The century turns; Art Nouveau and the new democratic life – penny press; peace crusades, Balkan Wars, international crises 1905-1915 The Cubist Decade – innovation in all the arts, notably architecture 1914-1918 The Four Years War, ultimately the First World War, shatters European power 1919-1939 “Between Wars” – unrest and indifference under the sway of diminished intelligence; culture imitative, regressive and derisive of itself; second youth movement and yearning for peace 1929-1939 World-wide economic depression 1939-1945 The Second World War; military application of scientific power, culminating in atomic explosion at Hiroshima 1945 ff. The Age of Anxiety; the Cold War in a divided world; local wars linked with decolonization and universal shrinkage of power; the race to reach the moon; ostentation and propaganda 1964 The cellular revolution: internal and external disorder, the third youth movement, and the second women’s liberation; decay and stasis of institutions; art against society; anti-art against the culture and the self; the absurd and the obscene in the effort at destruction or recovery; the drug experience and the experience of dissolution |
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